Define the following - psychology, cognition, motion, self and moral development.

SYDNEY CESAR

RSY 2102 PSYCHOLOGY

DEFINE THE FOLLOWING;*******PSYCHOLOGY, COGNITION,*****MOTION,****SELF, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT****

DEFINE PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology in my view is a relatively new ‘science’ where scientists (social scientist) study humans and animals behaviour, metal processes, and adaptation under specific environmental stressors. They study these reactions and behaviours so that a guide about, how people and animals, mental, physical and other aspects, reacts and adapt to the environment and how these help or hinder interactions between them. 

That means they try to label behaviours and classify them to understand, predict, or reinforce or create similar behaviour. 

From Sternberg (2001)``we learn that there are 4 main goals of psychology.

Firstly, this science has a describing goal, where they tried to explain why such human behaviour occurs and describe what is happening. This is done through intensive observation either in laboratory conditions or in field research.

The second goal is answering how people and other organization react feel, think invasions situations.

The third goal is to predict behaviour, and say that under similar circumstances people animals may act likeness.

The fourth and last goal is control, where they seeking to influence behaviour.(Lecture march 2003) E.g. To make people love the police in India, they try out pale blue uniforms instead of deep blue as psychologists believed that the later provokes/promotes violent behaviour.()  Interesting!

Sternberg (2001) argues that ‘to study psychology, the study of the mind and behaviour, is to seek to understand how we think, learn, perceive, feel, act and interact with others….’ (Sternberg 1995 pp4)

These are very difficult, because people and animals are unique and very unpredictable. An example could be when people or animals act, their actions can be purely reflexes (emotions), as these mentioned above (think, learn etc) are mainly cognition. Cognition cannot be measured accurately. Psychology deals with the individuals cognitive, behavioral and other aspects, not the big picture on (macro). This can have it’s limitations as behaviour are not always cognition, or cannot be explain by the study of mental processes or behavioral patterns. Although psychologists would argue that behaviour can be explained by studying mental processes and behavioural patterns. Sternberg (2001)``The focus of psychology is on the individual weather alone or in interaction with others and the environment [but] it is difficult to distinguish between aspects of psychology as environment, climate and people all affect how people think and act’’(Sternberg 2001 pp4)

Many authors have tried to define, or give a complete definition of psychology; one author coined “the study of behaviour or the science of behaviour” while another said ‘the science of the nature, functions, and phenomena of behaviour and mental processes”. These definitions can be confusing as psychology can mean more than one thing, or fields of study. This science helps us to help others, and ourselves as we learn what make us and others tick. This can mean that by understanding how people think act and socialize we shed light on our behaviors. One author said ``as different meanings are attached to this word it seams slightly perverse to define psychologist as the study or science of behaviour as if psychology were only interested, only in outwards behaviour and never the mental experiences often associated with it.’’ (Papalia 1995 pp10) To study ``psychology the study of the mind and behaviour, is to seek to understand how we think learn perceive, feel act, interact, with others and even understand ourselves and (Sternberg, 1995, P4)

Scientific side of psychology holds that what is found is the truth, predictability, value frees, every thing explainable – This cannot be so for social worker as social worker needs values to direct practice, and critical thinking should be applied as psychology has it’s limitations. () 

It was René Descartes from Europe, in the 1800s, and later USA where mainly male researcher studied and developed psychology. These were full of biases and contributed to create instability in the study of the animals and individuals. Not sure I understand the point of including Descartes in this discussion, who preceded scientific psychology and was a philosopher. You need to make the link apparent and explicit in your discussion.

This is quite a long definition with lots of ideas in it relevant to defining psychology. Look over your definition again carefully and you will see that some of these points are repeated. Therefore, you could have defined the term more concisely and not have lost any meaning from your definition.

DEFINE SELF

Self can mean different things to different people. It can mean - from whom I am to who I can be or what I was to who I cannot be.  This means that self is relative and changes over time. Therefore it is obvious that self is different for everyone as we move from person to person - perception of self-changes over time - as self grows, mature and age as we do. Self mean ‘an idea, of who we are and how we are’’ (lecture 6/reader12 March 2003). A couple of authors said ``the way the world appears to a particular individual, and how they attach meanings to their experiences and feelings’’ (Raskin & Rogers 1995 pp140) This quote needs to be more fully explained because on its own it does not contribute to a definition or explanation of self. It is believed that we are not born with these faculties. Self develops as a child grows and goes through experiences like falling down, looking glass self and other social learning experiences. If they receive positive value and worthy experiences they will develop a good sense of self-if not they will be damaged as self is not innate.

A group of authors said,`` that around the age of 12 to 18 months infants start to recognize themselves’. (Levis 1970 and als.) At around ‘18 months it is believed that the knowledge that a person can exist or exists independently from everyone else starts to surface’, according to child development experts’’. (Mahler et als 1975pp234)

There are various parts to self; some of the most important parts will be discussed below.

Self-concept :( sometimes defines as self) As children get older they develop self-concept. It is believed that “self-concept is a person sense of identity, the set of ...

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There are various parts to self; some of the most important parts will be discussed below.

Self-concept :( sometimes defines as self) As children get older they develop self-concept. It is believed that “self-concept is a person sense of identity, the set of beliefs about, what he/she is like as an individual’. (Breakwell et als 1992pp234). This can be a positive or negative idea of them. A typical example can be disables – where they are socialize through cultures (looking glass self) to believe that they are inferior.  They receive information (verbal and non-verbal) that they are inferior and so they behave likewise. So developing a negative idea of themselves (concept of self) resulting in expecting nothing of value from others, much less themselves. A couple of the authors said``that self-concept is a learnt sense of self that is based on the perception of the regard he has received from others’’. (Break well et als 1992pp234) .

Self-schema – this is another aspect of self where a person’s self-concepts is hold and glued into place. To illustrate this better a person with a strong self-schema knows their history and cannot (must not) be affected by exterior stimulus. These are people that are not easily insulted or take others criticism seriously. Is it possible to have a negative self schema in place that is constantly affected by even mild criticism? Social psychologists Hazel Markus et als said “Schema are based on past experience, and guides perceptions of events as they happen, and their expectation and anticipation in the future” (Hazel Makers et als 1977)

This means that a person with a strong, positive schema may look out for opportunity as they arise to improve themselves, whereas a weak schema person may stagnate due to lack of positive schema. Good!

Ego: This is a defense mechanism, that when self, self-concept and self-schema are attacked reacts to defend self. (Lecture9/reader). This is mostly visible in males and they are labeled as egocentric, egoistical, ego driven etc. This can be the reason why most males are violent and involved in fights. I’m not sure that I agree with you on this one. Such a controversial statement requires some backing support from research literature!

Sternberg (2000) stated that` self describes the whole of the personality including both the conscious and consciousness that helps to strive for unity among opposing parts of the personality’. (Sternberg 2000pp489)

DEFINE COGNITION

Cognition means the thinking processes of and about events of every day lives, as they occur.  Cognition can also mean to perceive something, through our senses, detect/decode, what is perceived, memorize, contain, these and probably later recall and use these for our own good. An example - where one is watching the road and sees someone being hit by a car, thus run to help that person can be very informative, and interesting; The perceptions could be, seeing (visual) the person cross and got hit on the road, the car, the driver, the smell of the brakes (sense of smell), the blood, and hearing (acoustical) the anguish of the victim etc......These were detected by the senses. The brain- memory- will store all, or part of these perceptions and these experiences will be carried with you for the rest of your life. The next time that person get to cross the road, these experiences will surface, and thus making the person take more care in crossing the road.

Two authors shared these views and said that `` cognition involves the ability to take in information, process it, store, and finally, retrieve and use it``(Zastrow & Ashman 2001).  From our lectures, we learn that “thinking or cognition refers to the mental manipulation of images, concept, rules, symbols’’ (lecture 7/ 13 march 2003|). So we can say cognition is the meaning we attach with each stimulus from our environment. Cognition does not refer to the meaning that we attach to stimulus, but the mental processing of that stimulus. There are various ways of doing that – as one theorist named Jean Piaget (1958) said ‘cognitive ability increases and matures with age’ (Kate’s lectures 2002). The writer share these views because - a ten year old child, compared to a twenty year old adult - their cognitive ability needs to be different. There will be great difference in cognition speed and thinking power. Their logic and reasoning, perceptions, and maturity in thinking morally will be different. This is true because with experience a person matures, and the ability to think, retrieves, memorize, and store, data becomes more refine.  One author said that`` as children grows thinking progresses and become more complex and abstract’’ (Zastrow & Ashman 2001pp115)

There are three parts to cognition according to Jean Piaget (1959) these will be discussed below:

The first one is called ‘adaptation’. This means like Charles Darwin theory of evolution ‘survival of the fittest’ (). Piaget said ‘adaptation to the surrounding environmental conditions and changing to survive in it’’(Zastrow & Ashman 2001pp116|) This means that the most adaptable person is the one that will survive, and grow. A typical example is the president of South Africa, Mr. Nelson Mandela, he survived 27 years in jail then got to be the president and later remarry. ()

The next step of Piaget’s cognitive development is ‘assimilation’. He said that this is ‘the process of taking in new information, and the resulting integration into the structure of thought’’ (Zastrow & Ashman 2001pp116|)

This like ‘operant conditioning’, help a person to experience, either personally or seeing others perform a task, and seeing the result of such task and finally adopting such actions. An example in class of lower primary, where teachers put an emphasis on order, and rising of hands if one has something to say. This will take some time but eventually everyone accept, agree, and behave likewise as the teacher uses praises or punishments (positive or negative reinforcement) to encourage good obedience.

The last and final one is accommodation This according to Piaget (1959), is a step where one ‘changes of one perceptions, and action in order think using higher, more abstract levels of cognition’ (Zastrow & Ashman 2001pp116)

An example when children start using money, they learn very fast, soon they will be telling you that five rupees will only buy them so much and they will need more money. They learn and modify their behaviours because it is in their interests to learn to count and prove to you that five rupees are too little.

They also learn that to lie and get more is a possibility!!

Another thing that affects cognition is “intelligence”. The more intelligent someone is, the more likely they could adapt to (a) their environment (b) themselves/others and to changes in their lives. Piaget said ``that intelligence help accommodate changes and assimilate new concepts.’’(David Fontana 1998pp10) This according to him help modify existing schema but sometimes intelligence people cannot “accept and adapt to changes better compared to an average person’’.( lecture 7/ 3 March 2003 )This can mean that people with average intelligence may take longer to think but surely make it after all. In addition, some people are good at math but poor at languages, while others are good at literature but clumsy with their hands. This is proof that there is definitely something going on where nature or nurture comes in. Is cognition nature or nurture? Piaget’s theories ``emphasis inborn potentials and how they unfolds over the course of a life time [whereas] Vygotsky emphases on the role of experience’’ Sternberg (2001 pp339)

Quite a lot of interesting ideas in here regarding cognition. Again, many ideas in this definition that tended to repeat somewhat. Try to provide a definition that is more concise.

Moral Development

This is a theory that coined moral developments of infants into adults develop in a specific pattern, (but not always); where they move from stage to stage.  This however has many biases, as there are differences in gender, culture, ethnicity and education levels that help or hinders moral development. Good point! In addition, the motivation behind each action should be the focus not the action. An example where a child, steals from his parents, we may say that the child is immoral. However, if one focuses on the age of the child, his economic background, history, social learning, looking glass self, school and home environments etc.. we may or may not find something that may have trigger these actions but at least we do not have only one person to look at, but many parts that helps to define the whole. Despite this, the actions may still be deemed immoral. To focus on only the reaction of an action a person misses a lot. The child could be conforming to a group he wants to relate to or wants to pleases his teacher etc..any explanation can help to shed light on these actions. This should be the basis for moral reasoning.

. Elisabeth D. Hutchison (1995) agreed also that gender, culture and education all contribute in the moral development and argued that “as boys seek for autonomy and independence, girls seek collectiveness, and togetherness thus care more for the needs each other “(Papalia and olds 1995). Another group of authors said ‘not only the person’s actions should be the focus but also the motivation behind the actions’’ (Darley & Shult 1990) The writer shares these same views, as people from various cultures, behave and act differently.

There are other, biases like the ideas of right and wrong the culture of some impoverished communities, poor, hungry and segregated people. All these people have only one priority – to survive and they live from hand to mouth. There is no place for morals for these people. Other set backs are most people do not move through to the sixth stage. Elisabeth D. Hutchison (1995) agreed and said that`` as an awareness of many concepts only can help to think and act in favour of others.(Lecture 8). She went further and said that ‘moral development is the sensitivity and knowledge of what is right or wrong [thus] developing our awareness of justice and ways of caring for others”. Elisabeth D. Hutchison (2000pp 114). Other authors who disagree with Kohlberg said ``these moral theories, require everyone to have a high standard of verbal competence in order to answer them’’ (Lefrancois 1999pp234) The writer shares these same views, as people from various cultures are different due to their social upbringing, their environment they have grown from, and their genetic make up. Some are more morally developed that others. Kohlberg (1978) conceded that stage six may not be applied all across cultures and societies and situations.(Sharey 1987 pp287)

Your definition so far has discussed morality in great detail, and some of the difficulties of defining what is moral within a social and cultural context. These are important issues, but in focusing on them, you direct attention away from the concept being discussed, which is moral development. Moral development is in your discussion somewhat, but the emphasis of your discussion is the difficulties and complexities of defining what is moral in a diverse socio-cultural context.

These were the stages of morality development by Lawrence Kohlberg (1969). (1)Preconventional morality

This is when a child is aged 7 years old and more. These children main motivation is reward and either they get caught or not.

Stage 1 punishment and obedience orientation;

These children other developments states that they are ego centric and thinks about themselves only so it is rather normal that, they do not share, or understand right or wrong. Kohlberg said ‘their behaviour is governed by receiving rewards or punishments- where good or bad behaviour are made to avoid punishments’. (Kohlberg 1968 pp86) 

Stage 2 naive instrumental hedonism

These children obey rules and regulations so that they may receive goods and pats on the heads as being good boys and good girls. They also behave as a way to make everyone love them with benefits in mind.

Kohlberg said ``rules are obeyed in order to receive rewards often favors’ (Kohlberg 1968 pp86) 

(2)Conventional morality

Stage 3; good boy/girl morality

To those children the idea of being bad is unbearable so conformity is the only way they may exist. They conform to the strongest group pressures, which are from either home or school. They also seek approval as only good behaviour pleases others. Kohlberg (1968) said ‘the opinion of others become important and behaviour is governed by the conforming to social expectations’ (Kohlberg 1968 in Zastrow pp286)’ 

Stage 4; authority maintaining morality

These people obey rules, as it is moral and ethical to follow rules and regulations. They internalize the moral reasoning and the direction of their action is decided from within. They believe in keeping the peace and maintaining law and order.

Kohlberg (1968) said ‘the belief in law and order is very strong and behaviour conforms to the higher authority as social order is important’ (Kohlberg 1968 in Zastrow pp286)’

(3)Port conventional morally

These are based on and around moral principles thus ending those of their own society.

Stage 5; Morality of contract of individual right

This stage is rarely reached, as morality is an active process, what is allowed today may not be allowed tomorrow. Therefore these person needs to be literate, and very conscious of changes in the law. 

Stage 6: Morality of individual principle and conscience

This stage is the most controversial as it is believed that few if any people get to that stage. This is why maybe it took a very long time for someone to go through these six stages. ``these moral theories, require everyone to have a high standard of verbal competence in order to answer them’’ (Lefrancois 1999pp234) the writer shares these same views (Lefrancois 1999pp234)

These stages can be use as a guide to inform practice.

EMOTIONS

An emotion is a reaction to a stimulus (feelings) within the body no matter how small that changes our normality. These changes can be from happiness to sadness or from sadness to anger. Theses changes vary from person to person, as each person interpret and add different meaning to similar stimuli. This is why each person’s ``perception is different according to what one decides to pay attention to’’ (Pauline Meemeduma 2002). An example, where a young girl is announce that she is expecting a baby, surprise, shock, joy, and anger, can be the emotions felt. All of these or only one of these emotions can be her reaction because of the meaning, or the symbolic meaning of the pregnancy. Babies can be happy events if one keeps his/her thoughts as positive as possible, if not there maybe negative thoughts and one may end up with an unwanted pregnancy.

Two authors agreed with these thoughts and said that `` emotions are complex combinations of feelings and moods that involve subtle psychological reactions and is expressed by displaying characteristics, pattern of behaviour’’ (Zastrow & Ashman 2001pp116) while Reeves (1992) said ``that which choreographs the subjective biological, functional, and expressive component into a coherent reaction to a particular event.” (Reeves 1992 pp402).

Two authors describe emotions as ‘physiological feeling usually accompanied by physiological reaction” (J.G. Calson and Hat field 1992pp410). There seems to be an agreement that it is a complex combination of feelings and moods. This means that there is a cognitive part as well as a physical reaction to emotion. This can cause some disagreement as some people bottle up their emotions or their non-verbals contradict their emotions. Whereas others are too motivated by it and anger arises or fights broke out. The writer thinks that emotions are complicated, active, motivational, and culturally driven, as it is the culture that dictates what is allowed or not. A group of authors was of that opinion when they argued that; ``Emotions and cognition are complex and interactive” (Elisabeth D. Hutchison pp 112) another argued that “emotions are short-lived, subjective, physiological and motivational” (Reeves 1992 pp 402,) This point has been mentioned already while another other, said` we are slaves to our emotions’ (Giligan 1995). Sternberg (2001) added that ``emotions are culturally regulated affects perceptions, have a cognitive component, a physiological and a behavioral component’’. (Sternberg 2001pp363)

Another component of emotions is about helping people to adapt, reflect and move or motivate them to move forward or to run away from life threatening situations. An example; when a person (male) sees a willing, young, beautiful girl, - hearts beats faster, sweat and other similar traits surfaces, thus has an urge to move closer whereas, when a lion come visible,- panic, shock, fear and cold sweat surface and we have an urge to run away. Sternberg (2001) said ``emotions in humans help to adapt its changing needs as well as circumstances in the environment’’ (Sternberg 2001pp363)

Reeves describe emotions as “Communicative phenomena that helps us to adapt to opportunity and challenges that we face, (Reeves 1992, pp402) he extended his meaning and said ``that which choreographs the subjective biological, functional, and expressive component into a coherent reaction to a particular event.” (Reeves 1992 pp402). This is the third time this quote has been used in your definition.

As a social worker, emotions have many purposes and functions: firstly to consciously provide and produce good and positive verbals, and non-verbals, secondly to read and rightly decode the expressed emotions from clients, and lastly to respond to these appropriately.

From our lectures, we learn that emotions have functions too. These functions are mainly during interactions, and communication. These functions are communicate feeling to others/regulate interact invites and facilitates social interaction and plays a pivotal role in creating maintaining relationships.

These can have a profound effect of the nature of social work if the social workers are getting emotional over clients problems. This may affect practice as emotions affect perceptions so critical thinking needs to be applied at all times. (.lecture 8/ March 2003)

Emotions and cognition are complex and interactive” (Elisabeth D. Hutchison pp 112)

REFERENCES WERE:

Lecture 3&4 11 March 2003

Lecture 5&6 12 March 2003

Lecture 7&8 13 March 2003

Lecture 9&10 14 March 2003

Sternberg, R.J. (2001).Psychology:In search of the human mind.(3rd ed) Forth Worth:Harcourt Publishers.

Elisabeth D. Hutchison (1999).Dimensions of human behaviour: person and environment.Pine Forge Press. Sage Publications.

Charles Zastrow, Karen K. Kirst-Ashman.(2001).Understanding human behaviour and social environment.(5 ed)Wadsworth:Graphics World Publishing

Anthony J. Chapman and Anthony Gale (1982).Psychology and people:Pine Forge Press

Mike Cardwell, Liz Clarke, and Claire Meldrum(2000).Psychology for A level students.Sage publications.

Dear Sydney,

Thank you for your assignment.

Your assignment definitions cover a lot a theoretical ground and a wide range of ideas. You have read widely and use a range of examples to illustrate your definition and in doing so demonstrate your understanding.

I will make a couple of suggestions:

Read over your work during the drafting stages where possible and try to analyse were you are doubling up on information, repeating the same or similar points or including information that does not in some way contribute to your definition. Your definitions were a little long, not so much because of their breadth, but because they were overly repetitious. This acts to weaken the impact and conciseness of your definition.
Work on referencing standards and editing. This is an ongoing process that we all must work at!!

Regards,

David