Gregory (1973) and other constructivist theories like Bruner (1957) and Neisser (1967) all believe in the assumptions, which Helmholtz (1894) had proposed previously: that perceptions are influenced by hypotheses and expectations which are at times incorrect. This therefore implies that perception is 'prone to error' (cited in Eysenck & Keane, 2000). Ittelson (1952) argued if a visual display appears familiar but is actually unfamiliar, the perceptual hypotheses formed could be inaccurate. The Ames distorted room is a good example of this. The room is an unusual shape, however when it is viewed from a certain angle, it actually looks like a normal rectangular room. In reality, one corner of the room is actually further away from the observer than the other corner and so when a person walks backwards and forwards along the back wall, they appear to have grown and shrunk. (Goldstein, 1984 as cited in Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology, 2002). However, according to constructivists, if the person in the distorted room happens to be a close relative of the observer, then there is a greater chance that the room would be seen as having an odd shape.
We often view objects from angles at which their 'true' shapes are not reflected in the retinal image they project. For example, rectangular doors often project trapezoid shapes and round cups often project elliptical-shaped images. Just as with size constancy, the perceptual system maintains constancy in terms of shape. However, shape and size constancy do not always work. When we look down at people from the top of a very tall building, they do not look more like ants to us, even though we know they are people.
Motivational and emotional states may also influence perceptual shape, and in turn, visual perception. One of the main assumptions of the constructivist approach is that it is dependent on internal processes. A study by Bruner and Goodman (1947) illustrated this. They studied motivational factors by asking rich and poor children to estimate the sizes of coins. They found that poor children overestimated the sizes of coins as apposed to rich children. The major bias here, however is that poor children may have overestimated the size of the coins because of the importance of money to them as apposed to rich children. However, rich children may have been more familiar with coins and so estimated their sizes more accurately. A modified version of this experiment was conducted by Ashley et al. (1951). They hypothesised participants into believing they were either rich or poor and found that the 'poor' condition overestimated the size of the coins as apposed to the rich condition. This is a strength of the constructivist approach as it can account for the role of motivation and emotion in perception since it strongly acknowledges the importance of internal states in determining perception (cited in Eysenck & Keane, 2000).
Similar to Gregory's hypothesis theory is a schema theory. This assumes that a cue calls upon a mental schema, rather than a hypothesis, which Gregory suggests. Anderson (1980) defines schemas as 'large complex units of knowledge that encode properties that are typical of instances of general categories and omit properties which are not typical of the categories'. An important function of schemas is to allow a person to gather relevant information from where it is needed but absent. The idea is similar to Gregory's hypothesis theory; however, this provides a richer account of the information that is called up by the cue. As already mentioned, Gregory's (1973) constructivism based hypothesis theory accounts for a number of visual illusions where the 'unnatural' use of cues leads for the misapplications of hypotheses (e.g. Ames 'distorted room' described above).
Also most of the evidence used in support of the constructivist approach is based on artificial stimuli that do not occur naturally in the real world. Studies such as that of Bruner et al. (1951) and Palmer (1975) presented visual stimuli only briefly, reducing the likelihood of using bottom-up processing and giving chance for hypotheses (top-down processes) to be used (cited in Eysenck & Keane, 2000).
Navon (1977) tested the idea that the whole is perceived before the parts that make it up by presenting participants with various stimuli. Navon distinguished between the global (or whole like features of a stimuli) and the local (or more specific and 'part-like' features). Each stimulus consisted of a large (global) letter made up of many small (local) letters. In some cases, the global and local letters matched and in some cases they did not. Participants had to identify either the large or the small letter as quickly as possible. Navon found that the time taken to identify the large letter was unaffected by whether the large letters matched or not. However, the time taken to identify the small letters was affected by whether the large letters matched or not, such that when the large letter was different, response times were longer. This suggests that it is difficult to avoid processing the whole and that global processing necessarily occurs before any more detailed perceptual analysis.
According to Kimichi (1992) assumption regarding global advantage cannot be rightly inferred, until more is known about perceptual units of a stimulus structure, such discrepancies may advocate improper characterisation of perceptual processing. In line with Kimichi (1992), it is therefore considered that the true nature of perceptual processing must be treated carefully in respect to the mapping of one processing style onto another, as no specific processing strategy is necessarily inherent of the same characteristics as another.
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