Motivational Theories
We might define motivation in terms of some outward behavior. People who are motivated exert a greater effort to perform than those who are not motivated. Such a definition is relative. A more descriptive, but less substantive definition would say that motivation is the willingness to do something and is conditioned by this action's ability to satisfy some need for the individual. The motivational process can be seen in the following exhibit.
An unsatisfied need creates tension which stimulates drives within the individual. These drives generate a search for particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension.
Motivated employees are in a state of tension. In order to relieve this tension, they engage in activity. The greater the tension, the more activity will be needed to bring about relief. Therefore, when we see employees working hard at some activity, we can conclude they are driven by a desire to achieve a goal they value.
Employee Motivation in the Workplace
The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to motivate employees. But that is easier said than done. Motivation practice and theory are difficult subjects that touch on several disciplines. Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex. An understanding and appreciation of this is a prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective management and leadership.
Motivation is the Key to Performance Improvement
There is an old saying that you can lead a horse to the water but you cannot force it to drink; it will drink only if it is thirsty--so the same holds true with people. They will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do. Whether it is to excel on the workshop floor or in the 'ivory tower' they must be motivated or driven to it, either by themselves or through external stimuli.
Are people born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. If no, they can be motivated, for motivation is a skill which can and must be learned. This is essential for any business to survive and succeed.
Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus:
* Job performance = f(ability)(motivation)
Ability, in turn, depends on education, experience and training; Its improvement is a slow and long process. On the other hand, motivation can be improved quickly. There are many options and an uninitiated manager may not even know where to start. As a guideline, there are broadly seven strategies for motivation.
* Positive reinforcement/high expectations
* Effective discipline and punishment
* Treating people fairly
* Satisfying employees needs
* Setting work related goals
* Restructuring jobs
* Base rewards on job performance
These are the basic strategies, though the mix in the final recipe will vary from workplace situation to situation. Essentially, there is a gap between an individual's actual state and some desired state. The manager tries to reduce this gap.
Early Theories of Motivation
Some specific theories were formulated in the decade of 1950s for the development of ...
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* Positive reinforcement/high expectations
* Effective discipline and punishment
* Treating people fairly
* Satisfying employees needs
* Setting work related goals
* Restructuring jobs
* Base rewards on job performance
These are the basic strategies, though the mix in the final recipe will vary from workplace situation to situation. Essentially, there is a gap between an individual's actual state and some desired state. The manager tries to reduce this gap.
Early Theories of Motivation
Some specific theories were formulated in the decade of 1950s for the development of motivational concepts. Two well known theories are:
ARCS - Motivation Theory
According to John Keller, there are four major categories of motivational strategies: Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction.
Attention
* Perceptual Arousal
Gain and maintain student attention by the use of novel, surprising, incongruous, or uncertain events in instruction.
* Inquiry Arousal
Stimulate information-seeking behavior by posing, or having the learner generate, questions or a problem to solve.
* Variability
Maintain student interest by varying the elements of instruction.
Relevance
* Familiarity
Adapt instruction, use concrete language, examples and concepts that are related to the learner's experience and values to help them integrate new knowledge.
* Goal Orientation
Provide statements or examples that present the objectives and utility of the instruction. Present goals for accomplishment or have the learner define them.
* Motive Matching
Adapt by using teaching strategies that match the motive profiles of the students.
Confidence
* Expectancy for Success
Make learners aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
* Challenge Setting
Provide multiple achievement levels that allow learners to set personal goals or standards of accomplishment and performance opportunities that allow them to experience success.
* Attribution Molding
Provide feedback that supports student ability and effort as the determinants of success.
Satisfaction
* Natural Consequences
Provide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or simulated setting.
* Positive Consequences
Provide feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired behavior.
* Equity
Maintain consistent standards and consequences for task accomplishment.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
The best-known approach to motivation is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. He hypothesized that within every human being is a hierarchy of five needs. These are:
. Physiological needs-Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
2. Safety needs- Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social needs- Includes affection, a sense of belonging, acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem needs- Includes internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization needs-The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment.
As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Maslow's theory maintains that, although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.
Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physiological and safety needs were described as lower order; social, esteem, and self-actualization were categorized as higher order. The two orders were differentiated on the premise that higher-order needs are satisfied internally, whereas lower order needs are predominantly satisfied externally (by such things as wages, union contracts, and tenure). In fact the natural conclusion to be drawn from Maslow's classification is that, in times of economic plenty, almost all permanently employed workers will have their lower-order needs substantially met.
Sources of Motivation and Motivational Inducement System
Sources of Motivation
* Intrinsic Process Motivation
Individuals primarily motivated by the intrinsic process will only engage in activities which they consider fun. These individuals are often diverted from tasks that are relevant to goal attainment in order to pursue tasks which are intrinsically more enjoyable. Thus, as long as team tasks are enjoyable, these individuals will be motivated to continue working effectively in the context of the team.
* Instrumental Motivation
Instrumental rewards are a motivating source when individuals believe that the behaviors they engage in will lead to certain outcomes such as pay, praise, etc. In the rooted exchange theory, the basic assumption is that individuals and organizations constitute an exchange relationship. Expectancy and equity theories are currently accepted models of motivation based on exchange relationships.
* External Self- Concept based Motivation
Self-concept motivation is externally based when the individual is primarily other-directed. In this case, the ideal self is derived by adopting the role expectations of reference groups. The individual attempts to meet the expectations of others by behaving in ways that will elicit social feedback consistent with self perceptions. When positive task feedback is obtained, the individual finds it necessary to communicate these results to members of the reference or peer group.
* Internal Self-Concept based Motivation
Self-concept motivation will be internally based when the individual is primarily inner-directed. Internal self-concept motivation takes the form of the individual, setting internal standards that become the basis for the ideal self. The individual tends to use fixed rather than ordinal standards of self measurement as he/she attempts to first, reinforce perceptions of competency, and later achieve higher levels of competency.
* Goal Internalization
Behavior is motivated by goal internalization when the individual adopts attitudes and behaviors because their content is congruent with their value system. The individual believes in a cause, and as such, is willing to work towards the goals of an organization supporting that cause.
Motivational Inducement Systems
Inducement systems are those design aspects of an organization which act to energize, direct, or sustain behavior within the organization. The most commonly studied inducements systems are the reward, task, managerial, and social inducement systems.
* The Reward Inducement System
The impact of reward systems on motivation has been analyzed mainly from a cognitive/instrumental perspective. The motivational properties of pay systems have thus been tied to the expectation that increased effort will lead to greater pay and the instrumental value of pay to the individual. Thus, instrumental motivation is the primary source of motivation that the reward system attempts to induce.
* Task Inducement System
The task design literature points to autonomy, task significance, feedback, task identity, and skill variety as attributes of the task that impact motivation. Work redesign provides a strategy for enhancing internal work motivation. In terms of the self concept, the degree of autonomy would effect an individual's opportunity to attribute outcomes to his/her traits, competencies and values.
* The Managerial Inducement System
This inducement system also energizes, directs, and sustains behavior through a number of sources. Transactional leadership style is based on exchange relationships and is best utilized with individuals who are primarily instrumentally motivated. Socio-emotional leadership style provides an important source of social feedback, and is especially effective with other-directed individuals.
* Social Inducement System
Under this inducement system, instrumentally motivated individuals respond to norms and sanctions enforced by the work group or organization. These norms and sanctions provide both rewards and punishments that direct and sustain behavior. With regard to the self concept, individuals are motivated to demonstrate the traits, competencies, and values which are important to the work group. Thus, social system provides the social feedback regarding one's level of these attributes.
Works Cited
ARCS - Motivation Theory. 27 September 2003. 28 September 2003. http://idle.ed.psu.edu/IDDE/ARCS.htm
Employee Motivation in the Work Place. 27 September 2003. 28 September 2003. http://www.accel-team.com/motivation.htm
Leonard, N.H et al. (1995). A self-concept based model of work motivation.
Herzberg. F, Mausner. B, and Snyderman. B. The Motivation to Work (New York: Wiley, 1959).
Vroom. V.H. Work and Motivation (New York: Wiley, 1964); and R. J. House, H. J. Shapiro, and M. A. Wahba, " Expectancy Theory as a Predictor of Work Behavior and Attitudes: A Re-Evaluation of Empirical Evidence".
Maslow. A. Motivation and Personality, 2nd. Ed, (New York: Harper and Row, 1970).
