From this Topic I think the personality and perception is an important factor. I am type B of personality I always like moving, walking, and but not eating rapidly, feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place, strive to think or do two or more things at once, cannot cope with leisure time, are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire. As I leaned from this Topic I think to know about perception is important because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Through perception, people process information inputs into responses involving feelings and action.
Topic 3
Learning and Motivation
So far I have emphasized the importance of perception and attribution theory in understanding OB. Now I will talk about learning, learning can be explained as a relatively permanent change in behaviour occurring as a result of experience.
Learning can be split into reinforcement and social learning perspectives. Reinforcement theories emphasize the means through which the process of controlling an individual’s behaviour by manipulating its consequences takes place. Social learning theory uses modelling or vicarious learning that is achieved through the reciprocal interaction among people, behaviour, and environment.
Motivation refers to the individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person’s effort expended at work. There are many theories for motivation. Types of motivation theories are two, the first is the Content theories which focus on individual needs that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. The second is the Process theories that focus on the thought or cognitive processes that take place within the minds of people and that influence their behavior. From the theories is the Needs Theories of Motivation; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory that indentifies five levels of individual needs and assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. Research fails to support the existence of a precise five-step hierarchy of needs. Some research suggests that higher-order needs tend to become more important than lower-order needs as individuals move up the corporate ladder. Needs vary according to a person’s career stage, the size of the organization and geographic location.
Alderfer’s ERG theory collapses the five needs into three: Existence needs, desire for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs, desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships. And Growth needs, desire for continued personal growth and development.
Acquired needs theory focuses on the Need for achievement (nAch), the desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. Need for affiliation (nAff), the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. Need for power (nPower), the desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory identifies two different factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction, also known as the motivator-hygiene theory. Hygiene factors, such as pay and working conditions, associated with job context. Motivator factors are sources of job satisfaction related to job content and presence or absence of motivators is the key link to satisfaction.
Equity Theory points out that social comparison takes place when people receive rewards. Any perceived inequity becomes a motivating state of mind people are motivated to behave in ways that restore equity in situations. When felt inequity is negative, individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work inputs. When felt inequity is positive, individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others in proportion to work inputs.
Also there is the Organizational justice, how fair and equitable people view the practices of their workplace. Procedural justice, degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed in all cases to which they are applied. Distributive justice, degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age or any other demographic characteristic. Interactional justice, degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect
Expectancy Theory of Motivation is talking about a person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V). Expectancy, effort will yield acceptable performance. Instrumentality, performance will be rewarded. Valence, value of the rewards is highly positive
Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing.
In my won experience learning and motivation is very important in any organization and it helps in improving the output of employees in any organization. Choosing the right model of learning and the right theory of motivation will make the organization more effective and competitive.
Topic 4
Work Groups and Teams
There is no doubt that groups can be great resources for organization, helping to accomplish things that are far beyond the efforts of any individual. Group a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals. Members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve common goals. Groups are important resources that are good for both organizations and their members. They help organizations accomplish important tasks. They also help to maintain a high quality workforce by satisfying needs of their members. The effective group one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability. Effective groups achieve high levels of; Task performance where members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results. Members’ satisfaction where members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs. And team viability members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an ongoing basis.
Synergy the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. Formal groups such as work units and task forces are designed by the organization to serve an official purpose where as, informal groups are unofficial and emerge spontaneously because of special interests.
Groups pass through various stages in their life cycle, and each stage poses what distinct management problems. In the forming stage, groups have problems managing individual entry; in the storming stage, groups have problems managing expectations and status; in the norming or initial integration stage, groups have problems managing members relations and task effort; in the performing or total integration stage, groups have problems managing continuous improvement and self-renewal; in the adjourning stage, groups have problems managing task completion and the process of disbanding.
In experience it is clear that group or team work is more effective the individual work. An effective group achieves its performance goals in the standard sense of quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results. For a formal workgroup, such as a manufacturing team, this may mean meeting daily production targets. Groups are important settings where people learn from one another and share job skills and knowledge. The learning environment and the pool of experience within a group can be used to solve difficult and unique problems. This is especially helpful to newcomers, who often need help in their jobs.
Topic 5
Leadership
Leadership is the ability to influence group towards the achievement of goals. Leadership has a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership, individual persons holding the title "manager") or an informal one (as in most friendships or team activities). Traits theories of leadership are theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non leaders.
From the theories of leader ship are the “Great Man” Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.
Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioural characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.
Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.
Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
Behavioural Theories: Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviourism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
Management Theories: Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.
Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfil his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.
From my own experience leadership can be owned and also can be learnt. But when someone got the leader characteristics he becomes better leader. Leadership and management differ in that management is designed to promote stability or to make the organizational rum smoothly, whereas the role of leadership is to promote adaptive change. I believe that relationship theory is the best theory of all because it encourages people to work harder and perform better.
Topic 6
Communication
Communication is the glue the holds the organization together. It is the way we share information, ideas, goals, directions, expectations, feelings, and emotions in the context of coordinated action. Communication is defined as a process of sending and receiving messages with attached meanings. Good communication is the most important tool in any organization and can be the making or breaking of a company. Communication may be considered a functional part of an organizational system, and it may be considered in an interpersonal context.
Organizational communication can includes, Flow of Communication, e.g., formal or informal, internal or external, upward or downward and, horizontal or networks. It also includes Induction, e.g., new hire orientation, policies & procedures and, employee benefits. Channels are also important in an organizational communication, e.g., electronic media such as e-mail, intranet, internet, teleconference, print media such as memos, bulletin boards, newsletters etc., face-to-face.
I think performance is attached to the words organizational communication. Communication is one of the basic functions of management in any organization and its importance can hardly be overemphasized. It is a process of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts, opinions and plans between various parts of an organization. So, effective communication is very important for successful working of an organization.
Topic 7
Decision Making
We all make decisions of varying importance every day, so the idea that decision making can be a rather sophisticated art may at first seem strange. However, studies have shown that most people are much poorer at decision making than they think. An understanding of what decision making involves, together with a few effective techniques, will help produce better decisions. Decision making can be defined as the study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision maker. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fits with our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on.
Routine and repetitive problem can be dealt with though programmed decisions; non routine of novel problems required nonprogrammed decisions that are crafted to fit the situation at hand. When making a decision five steps are needed, the five basic steps involved are, (1) Recognize and define the problem or opportunity, (2) Identify and analyze alternatives courses of action, and estimate their effects on the problem or opportunity, (3) choose a preferred course of action, (4) implement the preferred course of action, (5) Evaluate the results and follow up as necessary.
I think that decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes (cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice. If you want to lead effectively, you need to be able to make good decisions. If you can learn to do this in a timely and well-considered way, then you can lead your team to spectacular and well-deserved success. However, if you dither or make poor decisions, your team risks failure and your time as a leader will probably be brutally short. The group shares ideas and analyses, and agrees upon a decision to implement. Studies show that the group often has values, feelings, and reactions quite different from those the manager supposes they have.
Topic 8
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is enduring and complex, and may have both a positive and a negative effect on the staff and the workplace. In many ways culture will determine the survival of an organization over the long term, especially in volatile industries. Organizational culture is defined as a concept in the field of Organizational studies and management which describes the attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values of an organization. It has been defined as "the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. The function of the organization culture includes responding to both external adaption and internal integration issues. The organizational also reflects the values and implicit assumptions of the larger national culture.
An organization’s culture is transmitted to its members through socialization processes. Socialization is the process by which members learn and internalize the values and norms of an organization’s culture. Role orientation is the characteristic way in which newcomers respond to a situation.
There are two basic types of role orientation. An institutionalized role orientation results when individuals are taught to respond to a new context in the same way that existing members respond to it. An individualized role orientation results when individuals are allowed and encouraged to be creative and experimental when responding to a new situation. And there are various tactics that can be used to socialize newcomers to a particular role orientation, depending on what the organization desires from its members.
Organizational culture may be analyzed in terms of observable actions, shared values, and common assumptions. Culture rules and roles specify when various types of actions are appropriate and where individual members stand in the social. Shared meanings and understanding help everyone to know how to act and expect others to act in various circumstances.
As managers and library leaders, it is essential to understand the organizational culture if you want to make changes to how work is done, what type of work is being done, or at the broadest level, to affect the organization's standing in its industry. Understanding the culture and, as required, changing it, can mean the difference between attracting and retaining good employees and driving away the best employees with an environment that doesn't encourage, challenge, or reward them.
I learnt form this chapter that Organizational culture is enduring and complex, and may have both a positive and a negative effect on the staff and the workplace. In many ways culture will determine the survival of an organization over the long term, especially in volatile industries. Understanding the organizational culture can help you to understand why change does not take place, or why a project fails. It will also help you to determine where to strive to make changes to the culture.
Topic 9
Power, Politics, and Conflict
Power and politics are among the most important concepts in the study of organization behavior. Both power and politics are dynamic concepts and are a function of the interaction between different elements in organizations. Power has been defined as "the ability to influence and control anything that is of value to others." It is the ability to influence the behavior of other people in the organization and to get them to do what they otherwise would not have done.
Although the terms power, authority and influence are often used synonymously, there is a difference between them. Power is the ability to effect a change in an individual or a group in some way. Power may or may not be legitimate. That is, power need not correspond with a person's organizational position. Authority, on the other hand, is legitimate. It is the power which is sanctioned by the organization and is often the 'source' of power. Influence is a much broader concept than both power and authority.
When people lose power, they try to regain it individually, or by forming a coalition with other less powerful people. Organizational coalitions are different from political coalitions in some basic ways.
Organizational politics is often called 'power in action.' Politics may be legitimate (within sanctioned organizational limits) or illegitimate (exceeding sanctioned organizational limits) in nature. The degree of politicking engaged in depends on individual as well as organizational factors. Individual politicking is a function of the person's power motive, personality factors and background, and current work environment. Organizational politicking is a function of culture, goal and role clarity and the attitude of top management.
Considerable importance has also been given to the ethical aspects of power and politics. It is not always easy to develop ethical standards because of the ambiguous and subjective nature of certain actions.
This topic also talked about conflict which is defined as a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests. A conflict can be internal (within oneself) or external (between two or more individuals). Conflict as a concept can help explain many aspects of social life such as social disagreement, conflicts of interests, and fights between individuals, groups, or organizations. Organizational conflict is a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests between people working together. Conflict takes many forms in organizations.
My experience in this topic is the power control framework of organizations predicted that the degree of control exercised by management in resource allocation decisions is affected by the basis of power and perceived availability of resources. Results from experimental cases support the prediction that the basis of power has a consistent effect on resource allocation decisions. However, the effect of the perceived availability of resources varied according to the professional background and positions held by subjects in their organizations.
We also have to know that conflict will occur in any long-term relationship. Conflict happens in personal, professional, family, and social relationships. Expect it. Frequently, conflict damages and destroys relationships. Sometimes the damage is irreparable. Conflict does not have to be destructive. It can also be a stimulus for change, for improvement, and for creativity. Most organizations don’t handle internal conflict very well. Organizations use three basic approaches to deal with conflict in the workplace.
Topic 10
Organizational change
Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide change, as opposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc. Examples of organization-wide change might include a change in mission, restructuring operations (e.g., restructuring to self-managed teams, layoffs, etc.), new technologies, mergers, major collaborations, "rightsizing", new programs such as Total Quality Management, re-engineering, etc. Some experts refer to organizational transformation. Often this term designates a fundamental and radical reorientation in the way the organization operates.
Change should not be done for the sake of change -- it's a strategy to accomplish some overall goal. Usually organizational change is provoked by some major outside driving force, e.g., substantial cuts in funding, address major new markets/clients, need for dramatic increases in productivity/services, etc. Typically, organizations must undertake organization-wide change to evolve to a different level in their life cycle, e.g., going from a highly reactive, entrepreneurial organization to more stable and planned development. Transition to a new chief executive can provoke organization-wide change when his or her new and unique personality pervades the entire organization.
Typically there are strong resistances to change. People are afraid of the unknown. Many people think things are already just fine and don't understand the need for change. Many are inherently cynical about change, particularly from reading about the notion of "change" as if it's a mantra. Many doubt there are effective means to accomplish major organizational change. Often there are conflicting goals in the organization, e.g., to increase resources to accomplish the change yet concurrently cut costs to remain viable. Organization-wide change often goes against the very values held dear by members in the organization, that is, the change may go against how members believe things should be done. That's why much of organizational-change literature discusses needed changes in the culture of the organization, including changes in members' values and beliefs and in the way they enact these values and beliefs.
From my own experience I think that a significant organizational change occurs, for example, when an organization changes its overall strategy for success, adds or removes a major section or practice, and/or wants to change the very nature by which it operates. It also occurs when an organization evolves through various life cycles, just like people must successfully evolve through life cycles. For organizations to develop, they often must undergo significant change at various points in their development. That's why the topic of organizational change and development has become widespread in communications about business, organizations, leadership and management.
Topic 11
Social Responsibility and Managerial Ethics
Social responsibility is one of the main concerns for the modern manager of today. Social responsibility means going beyond legal and economic obligations, to do the right things and act in ways that are good for society. Besides being social responsible it is important for the modern manager to act ethically in there decision making process. Ethics is defined as the principles, values, and beliefs that define what is right and wrong behavior. It is essential for today’s managers to be both socially responsible as well as ethical.
It is essential to the environment and the people who live around them that this small organization shows that they are socially responsible and ethical. I have confidence that they will make the right decisions for people around them and the environment.
Ethical means conforming to the standards of a given profession or group. Any group can set its own ethical standards and then live by them or not. Ethical standards, whether they are established by an individual, a corporation, a profession, or a nation, help to guide a person’s decisions and actions. The commonly accepted definition of ethics is rules or standards that govern behavior. Managerial decision making is the type of behavior that managers are paid to do. They must make choices among alternatives and these may vary in terms of their perceived ethicality.
Ethics is the code of moral principles and values that govern the behaviors of a person or group with respect to what is right or wrong. Ethical Dilemma is a situation that arises when all alternative choices or behaviors have been deemed undesirable. Potentially negative ethical consequences, making it difficult to distinguish right from wrong.
From my own experience I think organization’s obligation to make choices and take actions that will contribute to the welfare and interests of society and organization. Distinguishing right from wrong, being a good corporate citizen. Many social responsibilities issues are ambiguous with respect to right and wrong. Ethics is the rules and principles that define right and wrong conduct.
References
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, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osbron Organizational behaviour 10/E (2008).
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Wikipedia The free encyclopaedia
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Emerald http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/
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Catherwood Library http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/library/research/subjectGuides/organizationalBehavior.html
