A251 In no more than 500 words, summarise the major stages in the development of agriculture and human societies in Southwest Asia

University Degree Historical and Philosophical studies

T0401901

Anne-Marie Butler

TMA 1

A251

Part 1

In no more than 500 words, summarise the major stages in the development of agriculture and human societies in Southwest Asia (c.18, 000 BC – 6000 BC).

The time period of 18,000bc-6000bc begins with the early Epipaleolithic period and ends with the early Holocene period.

The discovery of sites such as Ohalo 2 (18,000bc) from the Epipaleolithic period show signs of early settlements with plant food storage suggesting that the hunter gatherers were shifting towards a “built environment” (Scarre, p 207). The site shows some of the earliest signs of stone tools being used to grind plant foods. Ohalo was not a typical site for this period as other sites suggest short occupancy by hunter-gatherers.

The Natufian culture (12,000-9600bc) was identified by Garrod in 1928. The excavation of caves in Shuqbah Israel showed signs of larger villages that were on more permanent sites. The site extended outside the cave and continued around the outside of the cave onto the slopes. Harvesting and social culture was evident with tools such as mortars and grinding stones being used to process seeds. Small blades were discovered that could cut plants. There are signs of a cemetery showing deliberate burials. Trading is evident by the discovery of marine shells and of personal adornment such as bracelets and caps. Further archaeological work shows sedentary hunter gatherers outside of Levant in areas such as in Iraq (Shanidar cave) and Turkey (Hallan cemi).

The archaeological evidence found from the Epipaleothic period shows a shift towards settlements and food sustenance. The anthropologist Testart suggests that there were social inequalities with food storage amongst the hunter gatherers implying cultural implications in their “built environment”. Woodburn describes the hunter gatherers as “delayed-return hunter gatherers who invested there time to reap the rewards over a longer period (Scarre, p. 212)

The Neolithic period begins around 9600 bc. Evidence of new stone work has been discovered that show it was used to fortify settlements and produce weaponry for display and warfare. Three dimensional figurines have been discovered in this period with Cauvin describing this era as the “symbolic revolution”(Scarre, p.208 & p212)

In 1958 Mellaart discovered the settlement at Catalhoyuk which was inhabited between 7300 bc- 6200bc. Catalhoyuk shows unusual architecture with plaster modelling on the walls and paint used on the floors and as motifs on the walls. Houses were built closely with the walls touching and there is evidence of burials under the floors. Hodder discovered under one floor as many as 68 burials. Thousands of people would have occupied this settlement suggesting not just a food producing community but also a social one. The area was prone to flooding but evidence shows the farming of sheep and crops ...

This is a preview of the whole essay

The later Neolithic period shows larger scale cultivation possibly due to population pressure with domesticated cereals found widely around hilly flanks zone in 8800bc. Evidence shows that animals were domesticated between early and later Aceramic Neolithic. Smith notes that domestic animals are evident in areas where they were most hunted (Scarre, p.228). In this period there is evidence of social exchange and networking. Renfrew identifies 4 key sources of Obsidian and marine shells – artefacts made from these materials can be traced to these 4 sources with more artefacts being found close to the sources with as much as 80% of Obsidian being used in tools in Catalhoyuk suggesting evidence for “down the line exchange networks” (Scarre, p. 203-)

Words 542

In no more than 500 words, summarise the major stages in the development of agriculture and human societies in Eastern North America (c.9500 BC – c.AD 1100).

In Eastern North America we can see that hunter-gatherers started to change and have settlements in the Early Archaic period (9500bc). The hunter-gatherers already had toolkits containing artefacts including stone, wood and ivory. The change in climate around this time to a warmer and drier climate (hypsithermal) helped with crop cultivation. Radio-carbon dating shows that Squash was cultivated at Koster in 6000Bc with further specimens being identified in sites such as Maine dating to 4500-300BC.

The camp site at Koster was a residential camp dating around the Early to Early Middle Archaic period. House platforms were discovered with evidence of postholes indicating where the walls would have stood. Food was cultivated and stored in basins – both plant and animal remains show that animals were hunted whilst plants were harvested. Both human and dog were buried at this site. The dogs are the earliest evidence of dogs in North America dating to 6500BC and are believed to have been hunter’s aids, companions and guard dogs (Scarre, p. 326).The site at Koster leads Brown and Vierra (1983) to state that the settlement was aided by the Illinois floodplain which occurred after the early Holocecene period (Scarre, p. 326)

By the start of the Middle Archaic evidence has been found of human remains being purposefully interred, the most famous is at Windover pond with burials from c.6000BC until c.5000BC, the peat they were buried in has helped to preserve the bodies and human tissue and textiles have been found (Scarre, p.322).

Evidence of early agriculture can be seen with the Green River Archaic people. The people had networks that enabled them to trade, with evidence of Marine shells from North America and furs from Michigan. The burial sites show some people buried with no items whilst others were buried with exotic items. In Harr’s Island Florida there is evidence of burial ritual mounds that were built 3000-2000bc by sedentary fisher-hunter-gatherers (Scarre, p.327)

Plain pottery dating to 2500BC has been discovered with designs being added 500 years later. The pottery seems to have been developed in areas where the hunter-gatherers processed there plant and animal foods rather than in areas of production. Plant fibres were added to stop the pots from cracking or shrinking during manufacture.

By 1000 BC early woodland groups were occupying caves, open sites, rockshelters and managing forests. The caves at Mammoth and Salts cave give us rich evidence of the production of nut masts and plants that aided the woodland cavers in medicine and fibre and supplies of food.

The production of Maize has been dated to 1Ad-600 by crop producers who were accustomed to producing crops native to their area such as Illinois, Tennessee and Ohio. Further production of Maize has been identified in the Midwest at around 900Ad. By 1100 ad Maize was an established part of crop production and was intensely cultivated.

Tobacco was an important crop during early agricultural development in Eastern North America with the earliest dated find being tobacco seeds from Illinois in the early part of the first millennium AD. Wagner 2000 and Asch 1994 suggest that tobacco was available in Illinois earlier than this as pipes dating earlier have been discovered. The tobacco is thought to have been used by men for medicinal and ceremonial purposes (Scarre, p.330)

Word count 546

In no more than 500 words, compare and contrast the development of agriculture and human societies in Southwest Asia and Eastern North America summarised in Parts 1 and 2. Look for, and discuss, both similarities and differences.

When contrasting and comparing Southwest Asia and Eastern North America it is important to note that the timing for these two areas in parts 1 & 2 is very different. Southwest Asia’s change started in c.18, 000 BC which in contrast with Eastern North America was some 8500 years before their date of c.9500 BC.

In Southwest Asia there is evidence of early settlements and plant supplies starting as early as 1800bc (Olaho2) although this was not typical for this time period. The Natuvian culture is identified as having settlements in 12000 -9600bc. In Eastern North America there are signs of early settlements in 9500bc with the site at Koster dating slightly later at 6000bc.

In Eastern North America the hunter-gatherers were already equipped with tools when they began to have more stable settlements. The tools were used to hunt and cultivate crops and were made of bone, wood, antler and Ivory. In comparison the tools used by the hunter gatherers from Southwest Asia earlier in prehistory were more basic, arrow heads and blades for hunting.

Pottery was used in South West Asia in 6800bc at the end of the Neolithic period. This era was described by Cauvin as the “symbolic revolution”. Stone work was used to reinforce settlements. The use of pottery in eastern North America is more recent (2500 bc) and was used for cooking. Evidence has been found to show that designs were being added in 2000bc.

In both areas there is evidence of burial. Remains of burials have been discovered under houses in Southwest Asia. In Cataloyuk, Hodder discovered 68 burials under one floor. In Eastern North America there is evidence of bodies being interred (Windover Pond), other sites have shown some bodies buried with exotic items. Ritual mounds were discovered in Harrs Island

Florida, built 3000-2000bc, leading to the theory that burials were becoming ritualistic.

Both societies are seen to make the move to a sedentary lifestyle with the increased ability to sustain there lifestyle with agriculture. Plants and animals became more domesticated and plants were cultivated. The animals and plants used were different in both areas. In Eastern North America squash, maize, nut masts and sunflower were cultivated as crops and dogs were used as companions, guard dogs and as hunters. Evidence of dogs being buried with people has been discovered. Tobacco seeds and pipes have been found and were used for medicinal and ritualistic use.

In Southwest Asia cereals and legumes were cultivated and animals such as sheep and goats were kept. Both areas had networks for trade, an example being the Green River Archaic people. These people had networks that enabled them to trade in Marine shells from North America and furs from Michigan. Renfrew identifies 4 sources of Obsidian and marine shells artefacts in Southwest Asia.

In summary there are many differences and comparisons to these two areas. The time differences studied have an impact on areas such as the tools used and crops cultivated. There is no right or wrong answer to the relationship between these two areas. Archaeological evidence is being found all the time and what appears on first investigation to be the force behind the two areas development of agriculture and human societies is not so clear cut on further examination.

Words count 544

Total words 1632

References

The Human Past edited by C.Scarre, 2005 (ISBN 0500285314) published by Thames & Hudson Ltd

A251 World Archaeology Study Guide, 2nd ed 2008 published by the Open University

A251 World Archaeology Audio CD no. CDA5886 published by the Open University