“…their military exercises differ not at all from the real use of arms, but every soldier is every day exercised, and that with the greatest diligence, as if it were time of war”.
Some of these exercises were designed to develop great physical strength and skill. The practice of throwing spearshafts (heavy javelins) and carrying provisions and arms, (weighing in the excess of 60 pounds), were standard training methods. Discipline and order were also crucial to the smooth running of a superior military machine.
“…they live together by companies, with quietness and decency, as are all their other affairs managed with good order and security.”
A Roman legion was an autonomous fighting unit that comprised of its own soldiers, architects engineers and planners. It could carry out any operations independently from building cities to engaging in war. Once an area had been suppressed, it had to be garrisoned. However, the army comprised of around 6000 men and there were genuine concerns that it would not be possible to carry out all the tasks alone while still maintaining the ability to in indefinite combat. The solution was to recruit auxilia troops form the local population in order to police them. The difference between an auxiliary and a Roman citizen was the fact that an auxiliary had to commit for 25 years before he was rewarded with citizenship. This was no easy task given the constant battles fought but some managed to live through their service. Many of the great commanders of the Roman Empire were not native Romans but actually born ‘barbarian’, a derogatory term used at this time to describe non-citizens. Once an auxilia had achieved citizenship, he became a cut above the rest of his fellows. The term ‘going the extra mile’ comes from the Roman practice of being able to order a non citizen to do your bidding such as the right to order them to carry your bags for a mile.
The Roman government decided that when a city was conquered it would be provided with the same buildings as Rome. This in effect is selling the people a way of life and all the enjoyment it entails. This has the effect of ‘Romanising’ the population and this method is still in use today where we see for example American TV channels, shopping malls and McDonalds outlets in Egypt.
The Roman Army also made use of its (few) defeats by learning from them. When the Romans managed to capture a stray Carthaginian battleship, they took it to pieces in order to reproduce it. Their task was helped by the Carthaginian boat builders’ practice of numbering or marking each component of their ships for assembly. This made the task of duplication as simple as assembling a flat-pack Ikea wardrobe.
Rome’s foot soldiers thrived on close combat so they devised a gang plank with a hooked spike. They used this ensnare other ships which enabled the troops to cross the gang plank and get up close and personal to the enemy. Another advantage to this method was, by not sinking the enemy ship, you added a new vessel to your navy and the survivors could be sold as slaves.
The Romans also proved that they could be just as ingenious on dry land too.
The Greeks were originally responsible for the Hellenistic phalanx formation that the Romans adopted and utilised until around 390BC. However, this was changed when it became apparent that it wasn’t adaptable enough to cope with Roman expansion and the diverse adversaries that the army faced. The Romans adopted a less rigid formation called the manipuli (or maniples). It was this sort of inventiveness that outmanoeuvred Greek and Macedonian armies who had become hackneyed to old style phalanx.
“…many Greeks supposed that when the Macedonians were beaten that it was incredible; and many will afterwards be at a loss to account for the inferiority of the phalanx to the Roman system of arming”
This is not to say that other forces never seriously challenged the Romans. The Carthaginians pushed Rome closer to defeat than anticipated but sheer tenacity they managed to overcome this potential disaster.
Romans were able to build an extensive empire because they also had a far-sighted government. Their early expansion was seen as a defensive act to protect its fertile agricultural plains in Latium against the hill tribes of central Italy. The ius fetiale, or Roman religious law, did not countenance wars of aggression designed to gain new territory, however, this did not stop Rome forming beneficial alliances that eventually unified Italy. Until 133BC the Senate was the unchallenged governing body in Rome and this comprised of 300 high ranking men elevated, not by law but by tradition, into these lifelong positions of power. Underneath these powerful men came the Magistrates but these were elected which went some way towards the Peoples acquiescence as it gave them an impression of representation, albeit limited. Because of this the People seemed quite happy to leave military, finance and foreign policy to the Senate.
Polybius described the Roman constitution as containing a nicely mingled and balanced blend of three fundamental principles; the consuls represented regal power, the Senate aristocratic and the People democratic.
“Armed forces abroad are of little value unless there is prudent council at home”- Cicero
The Government was very munificent when it came to the conquered tribes by bestowing all or some of the privileges of a Roman citizenship upon them. They also adopted/adapted other countries religions and gods, as opposed to destroying them, and worshipped them in a suitably Roman fashion. One example is the Persian sun god Mithras who was seen in statues performing the act of cutting a bull’s throat, from which was believed that all creatures were propagated. Romans had no distinct ideology of life after death but religion was seen as a powerful conciliation tool for the masses. This was the origin of today’s Christianity, a religion operated by the Government in order to control the population.
The adoption of religious idols and practices and the bestowing of favour on vanquished people can be seen as a psychological ploy in order to gently stroke the People into acquiescence. We hear politicians today highlighting the importance of winning “hearts and minds” in places such as Iraq.
The Government would have realised that wars cost money, lots of it, and that trade would connect them to the known world and all it had to offer.
The establishment of Roman roads was of major importance as, not only did they enable law and order to be maintained, they played a crucial role in trade. The Appian Way was a good example of road building, it connected Rome with ports and city-states in Italy and it also served as a propaganda tool. When members of the Spartacus revolt were captured in 71BC, they were crucified along a 100-mile course to serve as a warning to potential rebels.
Rome’s expansion took her into countries and regions brimming with exotic wares. These included ivory, rhinoceros- horn, tortoiseshell, silk, frankincense and slaves. Wealth would certainly have been an important requirement for the building and maintaining of such an extensive empire. The development of Roman ships also helped them to expand trade further and when Hippalus discovered a way to establish a direct sea route from Aden to India it revolutionised trade.
“The sinews of war are infinite money”- Cicero
Rome exacted tributes from places such as Africa and Asia Minor. The city of Ashkelon became the gateway to the East. War booty was another lucrative way of raising money. The razing of Jerusalem and plundering of the temple is one example and it is alleged that Caesar invaded Britain because he believed it to be brimming in pearls. Such was the importance of trade.
The factors that enabled Rome to build such an extensive empire are not easy to measure. The Military, Government, Trade all played crucial parts in creating and holding together such a large and diverse empire for as long as it did. Psychology, Propaganda and Religion were utilised as tools to conciliation but, while we can identify the main ingredients, how they blended and in what proportions, is a mystery.
I don’t believe that even the Romans themselves knew quite how they managed to pull it off. If they did, surely we would still be living in the Roman Empire. The British Empire and later, Adolf Hitler would attempt, in varying degrees, to emulate Rome’s successes. America has recently joined the ranks of the hopeful successor, but while the rise of the Roman Empire is impressive, it is worth remembering that not even this great empire could escape its ultimate, internal disintegration.
Wells C, 1984, The Roman Empire, Fontana Press, London, p123
University Handout, Group 1 – Josephus F, The Roman Army in the First Century AD
University handout, Polybius, p226-230
Scullard H H, 1982 , From the Gracchi to Nero(5th ed), Routledge, London, p2
