Discuss the feasibility of government-initiated population control policies in the third world.

Population growth is an important issue for the world as a whole, but particularly so in the third world where it is believed to have a relationship with the economic phenomenon of underdevelopment and its attendant problems, such as poor general economic performance, low productivity, widespread unemployment, poor utilisation of resources and underemployment, and generally low standards of living. Todaro describes the effects of these problems when he states 'These low levels of living are manifested quantitatively and qualitatively in the form of low incomes (poverty), inadequate housing, poor health, little or no education, high infant mortality, low life and work expectancy...'_

In this essay I will firstly look at the various perspectives on what this relationship actually is and hence what solutions to the problem are advocated, before moving on to look at how feasible government initiated population policies are in the light of this. This examination of the ideological framework and economic rationales underpinning policy is necessary because what constitutes a feasible solution to a problem depends on what is perceived as the cause of the problem, as we shall see. The first school of thought contends that population growth in itself is not necessarily a major problem, and can in fact be desirable. Proponents of this particular doctrine point to the history of western countries, stating that many of these countries experienced large increases in population which were beneficial in terms of speeding up their economic development. It is believed that this happens because 'larger populations provide the needed consumer demand to generate favourable economies of scale in production, to lower production costs, and to provide a sufficient and low-cost labour supply to achieve higher output levels.'_ The stabilisation in population now generally experienced in the above countries is believed to be a direct result of the benefits which accrue as a result of economic development, for example such countries can afford to implement a system of social security and take steps to improve public health. This can be contrasted with the Third World, where having a large number of offspring is often viewed as essential in providing for old age in the absence of a system of social security, as well as increasing the number of people available for work. Poor public health often compounds the problem through high rates of infant mortality, which encourages parents to have lots of children in the expectation that not all will survive. Another very important factor behind any slowing down in population growth are the benefits which economic development provides for women. Increased access to education and superior job opportunities (as opposed to mainly menial agricultural work) helps to increase the opportunity cost of child-bearing and gives women more economic independence, preventing them from being pressurized into early marriage and reducing the need to rely on other members of the family for security, and it can also be seen that the workplace can be effectively used for dissemination of information about birth control and family planning. Hence, it has been argued that as rapid population growth is the effect rather than the cause of underdevelopment , policies aimed at facilitating development should be the main focus of attention, as when this occurs population will stabilise of its own accord. Another justification for an increasing population is to provide a workforce for the numerous rural regions in certain Third World countries which have an abundance of arable land but not enough people to cultivate it. Such land could also be brought into use by setting up rural development programs to help reduce the geographical imbalance in population distribution caused by migration from rural to urban areas.

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It has been argued, largely by Marxist economists, that the preoccupation of developed western countries with advocating population control measures in the Third World is part of a hidden capitalist agenda which has the ultimate aim of hindering Third World economic development. The rationale for this is that holding back population growth will prevent Third World countries ever developing to the extent that they pose a threat to the current status quo in the world economy, which is favourable to the vested interests and inordinate resource consumption of First World countries. For those who subscribe to this particular view, one desirable course of action would be for first world countries to take steps to curtail their overconsumption, something which currently denies third world countries any fair share of world resources and in turn leads to the 'low levels of living' which facilitate such rapid rates of population growth. More radical still would be a change to socialist principles of production and distribution in order to facilitate a more egalitarian global order.

The preoccupation with population control measures mentioned above is characteristic of another, opposing school of thought known as the 'hawk argument', which contends that far from being beneficial, rapid population growth is a very serious problem and is seen as responsible for 'almost all of the world's social and economic ills'_, particularly the poverty, high mortality, poor economic performance and other associated problems commonly found in the Third World. In this sense, it is believed that rapid population growth is the cause of underdevelopment rather than the effect of it, and this provides the justification for somewhat extreme measures to curb Third World population growth. This is typified by the somewhat coercive programme of compulsory sterilisation adopted by India in the 1970s, applicable for those with three children or four children where the first three were of the same sex. Slightly less coercive measures have also be adopted by governments by way of creating economic incentives for having fewer children. One of the best examples of this sort of policy can be found in China, where the authorities have attempted to enforce a strict maximum of one child per family. As well as giving priority in public services such as housing to those that conform to this policy, large fines can be levied on those who do not. Singapore has also adopted similar measures by giving priority in housing to those with small families, and limiting income tax relief to the first three children as well as restricting paid maternity leave and subsidized health care.

It can be seen that there are numerous other perspectives on the subject, which acknowledge rapid population growth to be problem, but which also highlight the role of other factors as well. These stress the idea that whilst rapid population growth may not be the primary cause of economic and social problems in the third world, it does serve to complicate and exacerbate matters. This may be because widespread poverty encourages people to have lots of children as a potential source of labour and as insurance for old age, which in turn makes the the economic situation worse as people are able to save less than before and experience a fall in per capita income, ultimately leading to further poverty. An optimal solution here is seen as being the provision of the right conditions for economic development so that people would be more motivated to have smaller families, and to provide family planning services in order to give parents the knowledge and means to do so. Todaro also identifies an intermediate position in the population debate, which incorporates several of the ideas discussed above. This particular perspective acknowledges that rapid population growth, as well as unequal and inappropriate population distribution can be a problem in the Third World, but only in terms of exacerbating problems that are primarily caused by underdevelopment and the relationship between the First and Third world. Thus, it is necessary to tackle the fundamental problem of underdevelopment which gives rise to rapid population growth, provide funds for family planning education and access to contraception, and to make First World countries take a closer look at how they may be contributing to the problem by ignoring the 'real' issue of underdevelopment as opposed to population growth per se, and by wastefully overconsuming a massive range of resources.

In this essay I have looked at numerous ideas on the relationship between population and underdevelopment in the Third World and the various courses of action available, which have ranged from policies that can be implemented at home by Third World countries to those that involve a more global perspective in terms of acknowledging that First World countries may themselves play a significant part in the problem. As I have already mentioned at the start of this essay, whether or not government initiated population policies are feasible or not depends upon one's interpretation of what the root cause of Third World problems actually is. For those who subscribe to the 'Hawk' school of thought, government initiated policies such as compulsory sterilization and manipulation of economic incentives are entirely feasible given that rapid population growth in itself is seen to be a cause rather than an effect. In contrast, those who believe population growth is desirable would would generally welcome plans to reverse the negative effect of rural-urban migration, but would state that as underdevelopment is the root cause of Third World problems, government initiated policies such as these are not enough in themselves, and action also needs to be taken on the part of First World countries to promote development and a more equitable distribution of resources. Similarly, those who subscribe to the 'consensus' position on population would welcome certain government initiated policies, particularly family planning programs and attempts to educate the populace and encourage them to have less children. However, once again, such policies are not feasible unless they are implemented as part of a wider strategy to tackle the underlying problem of economic underdevelopment, something which needs co-operation on a global level - 'Those Third World countries that have substantially reduced their rates of population growth have also experienced important advances in their economies, which have affected a very considerable proportion of their populations'.

Bibliography

Economic Development in the 3rd World (4th Ed.), Michael P Todaro, Longman 1989

The Third World, Michael Barke and Greg O'Hare, Oliver and Boyd 1985

A Geography of the Third World, J.P Dickenson et al, Methuen 1985
Todaro p27
Todaro p204
Todaro p206
Dickenson et al p63