One aspect of women’s needs that has to be considered is the differentiation between women’s practical needs and women’s strategic needs. Practical needs being needs that are practical to women’s everyday lives, strategic needs beings needs that contribute to the political struggle for gender equality. Young (1993) defines gender as being “the social meanings given to being either a man or a woman in a given society, and to the expectations held as to the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviour of men and women. As such, it involves both ideology and material practices (Young, 1993; 136, cited in Currie, 1999; 21).
Development impacts both men and women, and both groups are agents of social change. According to Currie (1999), this recognition has transformed studies of development (Currie 1999; p9) as it has forced an examination of “gender analysis” and or “the incorporation of women into development planning”. Women as a group do not form one position within society, and this is true of men as well. However, there is research on the feminization of poverty, where women are disproportionately affected by poverty. The gender-based inequalities are interlinked with other forms of inequality such as class, race, ethnicity, geographical location and physical ability ).
2. Economic Growth
Economic growth can either produce positive effects for gender equality, or alternatively produce effects that promote gender inequality (World Bank Report, 2001; 181). It can be argued that income growth and economic growth produce positive effects that impact the lives of the poor, for example, increasing incomes, or “expanding the availability of such public services as schools, transportation, and health clinics – avenues for improving the well-being of girls and women” (ibid; 181). However, providing access to these services that are in part provided through income-generating programs does not necessarily equate to women and girls utilizing them.
In most societies, women ‘shoulder’ the burden of domestic responsibilities – cooking, fetching water, collecting fuel and caring for children, the sick, and the elderly (World Bank Report, 2001; 183). In addition, on average women work for longer hours than men do (ibid; 183). Men are also generally expected to be the primary breadwinner of the family, and their self-esteem and status within society is caught up with their ability to fulfill this role. The World Bank Report argues that economic development offers incentives and opportunities that can break down entrenched gender roles within the economy, which then allows females to participate as males do in the market economy (ibid; 183).
3. Household Economies
The 1998 Government report on poverty discusses issues of household power linked to wage earning. It is worth noting that different family members have different spending priorities. Men, women and minors have their own partial expenditure responsibilities. Buijis and Atherford make the observation in their study of the Eastern Cape, that there is a general reluctance of men to confide details of their income to women (i.e. their wives and girlfriends), which then supports the contention that incomes sharing is not even a general household practice (Buijis and Atherford, 1995; 73-4; cited in : 8). The report on poverty also cites research from a range of countries which suggests that women are more likely to spend the money over which they have control on the basic needs of themselves and their families, whereas men are more likely to spend money on themselves (: 8). This would then impact on how successful economic development is for gender equality, both within the family and outside it. This research then indicates that the family is more likely to benefit more greatly is women earn money, because if men earn money they are more likely to spend them money on themselves.
4. Gender Equality Across Society
Gender equality can occur in numerous different realms of society, and this has limitations on gender-sensitivity throughout other programs and other sectors of society. Firstly, women in high positions do not ensure sensitivity to women’s needs ( :4), and consequently may have very little impact on the lives of poor poverty-stricken women. Female South African parliamentarians comprise approximately twenty-five percent (25%), which is a dramatic increase when compared to prior to 1994, when female parliamentarians made up less than three percent (3%) of national parliamentarians ( :3). There are theories that refer to the feminization of poverty, and it could be argued that the impact of female Parliamentarians in negligible on the extreme poor female section of the poor in South Africa.
Inequality within society occurs along many different lines that simply gender. An examination of purely gender inequality would almost be worthless as other forms of inequality intersect and reinforce gender inequality. This is especially true in South Africa, where historically apartheid promoted the opportunities of whites at the expense of non-whites.
Although the paper thus far has focused primarily on women (a consequence of the majority of the literature) it is important to consider the position of men as well (the question gender equality which is both men and women)
5. The Impact of the World Bank
The World Bank is the largest development institution in the world (A citizens guide; 1). Some critics of the World Bank, and its subsequent impact, argue that the dominant economic formulas and policies are gender blind, and consequently do not address gender inequity in society (ibid; p1). “By using development models that do not differentiate between men and women… the Bank fails to acknowledge constraints that prevent women from equally sharing in the positive results of development: (Ibid). Therefore, a continuation of this argument would be that a gender-blind approach does not recognize differences between genders in the enjoyment of the benefits of development. Consequently, it would seem logical to argue that an approach that is gender “informed” is more likely to be analysis (and hopefully ensure) the impact of development for both men and women.
6. Time-poor
Often when dealing with economic development, one thinks automatically of financial development. However, this fails to consider the other work (i.e. non-paid) that is conducted throughout the day. The poorest women in South Africa, when questioned by the Self Employed Women’s Union, had difficulty in understanding the concept “leisure practice”, and in the end put down that their leisure activities were “attending church”, but this was in attempt to satisfy the questions rather than reporting actual leisure activities (: 13). The Report on Poverty asserts that these very poor women are ‘time poor’ in addition to being income-poor. Diana Elson speaks of a ‘time deficit’, where there is a mismatch of hours in a day, and the hours required to fulfill all a persons paid and unpaid obligations. When this occurs, generally it is personal self-care that reallocated to another period of time (ibid; 13). Alternatively there is a transfer of work, however this option is less available to women because of power differentials. Women’s option is usually to transfer work to an even less powerful woman, i.e. younger sibling or daughter (ibid; 13).
7. Triple-burden of care
Gender analysis distinguishers between three categories of roles – productive, reproductive and community. Both men and women are active in productive roles, which is in either the formal or informal sector, but generally paid. Women however, bear a heavier burden with regards to the reproductive role. It is usually primarily women’s responsibility the burden of care of both the young and the old. The community role that women and men fulfill is usually different though. Men are more likely to get involved with community politics, were as women’s work is generally community maintenance. The combination of these roles contributes to women doing more work, and heaving less free time (which has already been discussed)
8. Conclusion
Development does not occur in a social vacuum, profound social changes accompany any transformation in the way that people acquire their livelihood and change is frequently disruptive. The rapidly changing socio-economic environment disadvantages particularly women in developing countries, where they have lost their traditional role in the subsistence agriculture economy without having acquired any new functions in the fast-growing cash economy…in this process, they have been marganlized. Invisibility and non-recognition of women’s productive labour significantly undermines their contribution to society. Recognition of women’s reproductive role but choosing to ignore their productive role cannot be but an obstacle to society’s progress as a whole (from global outlook 200; women’s international network news).
It is not possible to state conclusively whether economic development, or indeed development in general is good for gender equality. Economic development may well produce incentives that contribute towards the breaking down of rigid gender defines roles. However, gender equality (or inequality) will vary across many different sectors of society, so economic development may impact on one sector and contribute towards increased gender equality, but in other areas, levels of gender equality may remain untouched. But, promoting gender equality should be inherent in every development program, Margareta Winberg, the Swedish Minister for Agriculture, Food and Fisheries and for Gender Equality, states:
Gender equality is a prerequisite for the eradication of poverty and hunger and for promoting growth and sustainable development for all
()
Development must include more than simply a gender perspective. Inequality and discrimination occurs along many lines other than gender, and consequently development programs must include a focus on race. Postmodernist theory points out that women are not a homogeneous category, but rather belong to diverse socio-economic groupings based on class, ethnic, or racial identities. Gender subordination is therefore not experiences by all women in the same way and with the same intensity at all times (Nzomo; 156) Without a race-gender perspective, development and affirmative action can too easily promote white women and black men – black women can remain marginalized and still be ignored (). This is especially important given the composition of rural poverty, where it is predominately black women that are situated in this position.
9. Bibliography
-
A Citizen’s Guide to Gender and the World Bank. Women’s International Network (1997) (Vol. 23)
-
Bond, P. (2001) Against Global Apartheid. University of Cape Town Press.
-
Coetzz, J K et al (Eds.) (2001) Development Theory, Policy and Practice. Oxford University Press; Cape Town.
-
Currie, D H. (1999) Gender Analysis from the Standpoint of Women: The Radical Potential of Women’s Studies in Development. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies. (Vol. 5: No 3)
-
Sweetman, C (Ed) (2001) Gender, Development and Health. Oxfam; Oxford.
-
Women and the Lome Convention Women’s International Network (1997) (Vol. 23)
-
Nzomo, Maria Feminist post-modernist development (Development Reader Coursework, 3-7 September 2001)
