Durkheim believed that solidarity was based on different variables. In an agriculture society where little social differentiation exists between individuals, he felt the common activities and everyday experiences enabled individuals to share beliefs, values, sentiments and other general likenesses (a collective conscience). As such, would they communicate and accept repressive laws to operate within. In an industrial society, it is more complex due to the divisions of labour. Although individuals still share certain grounds, drifts in social order occur because of differences in economy situations. Groups divide further apart of the course of time and individuals tend to then relate to one another “…on the basis of the complementary differences…” (‘Key Sociological Thinkers’, p.49), making them mutually dependant on one another; If the individual can rely on themselves, Durkheim believed that they can then perfectly integrate into the society.
Like Durkheim, Max Weber (1864-1920) was another of sociology’s founders. “…one of his main contributions was his analysis of bureaucracy…” (‘Principles of Organisation Behaviour’, p.252) in the late eightieth century during the same period of radical society changes that Durkheim’s theories on social solidarity where formulated. Weber’s interests in power and authority fuelled his studies in bureaucracy, introducing concepts such as legitimate authority and rationalisation.
Famously, Weberian bureaucracy employed the following characteristics:
- Job specialisation
- Authority hierarchy
- Employment
- Recording
- Rules and procedures
- impersonality
Job specialisation was a borrowed notion from Durkheim’s ‘division of labour’ and extending the complexities of having several divisions in a growing enterprise, is the need for administrative tasking. As such, an authority hierarchy is used, which holds a clear cut chain of command whereby each worker is aware of who they respond to, and understand the rational legitimate authority that person (i.e. manager) possess. The rational acceptance is maintained by the professional recording of decisions as well as the rules and procedures every worker/employee is subjected to. In contemporary organisation theory, “…we do what managers tell us, not because they possess some divine power…” (‘Organisation Behaviour, an introductory text’, p.489) but because of reason they were put in place for and the legitimacy behind the requirement.
Weber believed that an organisation based on the above characteristics and with legitimate authority enforced rationally, gained far reaching advantages and would be more efficient than one based on traditional or charismatic authority; due to its formal structure and positions within it. He believed this would make bureaucratic form of organisation absolutely necessary in a modern economy.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) work was mainly concerned with capitalism and the changes it brought upon society. He lived and witnessed a transition period in society, where there was a change from feudalism to capitalism in certain West-European countries. Industry in particularly found itself in a shift of social power, from ownership of land to ownership of capital. For the poor and working class to survive, work was the only means of establishing capital. Therefore the owners of capital found great power in organisations which employed these workers. It was a powerful tool which allowed them to control the workers and in Marx’s studies, this led to a theory of ‘Alienation’.
A number of dimensions was set out by Marx, firstly describing how workers are divorced both from the product of their labour but also the process of its production. It is to say that the employer has full control over how the workers work, and what means must be met. Since labour is external to the worker (they can not guarantee their job), they have no alternative or bargaining grounds. Discontentment to follow instructions could simply result in a loss of job, one which couldn’t be afforded for the poor.
With control on the workers and production means, owners could alter all means of production with little worry. In-line assembly methods of production were popular since it was found to improve overall production efficiency. This restricted workers to a more isolated work environment, heavily concentrated on meeting targets, ignoring all other needs, such as that of employees to socialise. Marx also found that alienation of a worker could eventually alienate from themselves in a ‘zombie like’ work order.
In real-world organisations today, in-line assembly methods are used widely, in particular for the car-manufacturing industry as well as most electronic goods productions. It is a means of increasing productive efficiency, but unlike the eighteenth/nineteenth century, alienation is now a concept that companies tend to avoid at most costs due to the changes in society over the years especially with human rights laws and bodies. Organisations will consider the needs of its employees, listening to ideas and complaints more. In recent today, we even see how managers are even swapping the ‘suit and tie’ of the office and coming down to the work-floor with employees in order to gain better insight into what changes can be made.
This particular method can be seen as anti-conflict behaviour, unlike in the time of the eighteenth/nineteenth century which founded another concept of Marx, ‘Conflict Theory’. In the instance of the large organisations controlling its workforce where the means of production became the owners own interest, the workers only benefit left was gaining money. Going to work no longer provided any means of socialising, contact or enjoyment; inevitably workers would feel unmotivated to work. This alongside what Marx believes to be “class consciousness” whereby people are aware of differences between one another (i.e. social class, age, religion, race) it causes a separation between the groups of workforce and the executives in management. People mostly look at material objects for a sense of class status, and Marx studied this in his earlier work of idealism and materialism.
The Communist Manifesto was the published work of Marx and his friend Engle’s. “…In this collaboration they identify the class struggle as the primary dynamic in history…”. The manifesto was written to influence the working class to stand up to the Bourgeoisie.
The critical theoretical perspective of functionalism is one that contributes widely to contemporary organisation theory. In the course of the twentieth century analogies of biological realm were being drawn up to explain the social phenomena. “…Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim are especially important in regard to this…” (‘Social Theory in the Twentieth Century’ p38). Central to their analysis was the notion of a social system to survive, it would need to adapt to its environment – just in the same manner that organisations today must adapt and change to public demand - in order to stay competitive. Durkheim’s views on division of labour led to the diagnostician of ‘anomie’ through the transition of a differentiating society, as a major social problem of the time. It refers to a significant lack of normative regulation in society.
Lastly of the critical theoretic perspectives is that of symbolic interactionism, a micro-perspective referring to the distinctive character of interaction as it takes place between human beings. It considers the factors of social interaction and the function which constructs social order.
To conclude on the theories analysed in the assignment, it is important to understand that the importance these thinkers on contemporary organisation theory does not lie within the areas of their specialties, but with the questions they asked during the dramatic social changes of their time.
Karl Marx had very radical and interesting questions that based much of his work on capitalism, class and social interaction. One of the great social scientists of his time, his published works are extremely important when studying history or when understanding past social conflicts. Today sociologist will look at the conflict theory for studying differences, for example, the power struggle between men and women as well as studying the need for organisation to maintain and improve that concrete bridge between employer and employee. Although not all of what Marx believed was true, his writings still influence many people and made a difference in society. As did Max Webber, his theories in rationalisation and the importance of individuals to act and rely on them selves to integrate into society is one that we all can refer to. The need for use to develop our own personal skills and knowledge is extremely relevant in every day life and is one we peruse to a great extent.
All these theories and concepts as seen applied in real-world businesses today, will continue to hold relevance and attract lasting interest. They will also sort to support new sociological findings as well as echo the same questions to be answered by new theorists.
