Women and the environment: challenging the global development process

STRUCTURE:

1. THE ORIGINS OF THE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT2. "SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT": WOMEN AND THE ENVIRONMENT3. THE CHIPKO MOVEMENT 4. WOMEN AND THE ENVIRONMENT: CHALLENGING THE GLOBAL

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS WOMEN AND THE ENVIRONMENT: CHALLENGING THE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Survival is not an academic skill ... It is learning to take our differences and make them strengths. For the master's tools will never dismantle the master's house. They may allow us temporarily to beat him at his own game, but they will never enable us to bring about genuine change. (Audre Lord: Fin Minh-ha Feminist Review 25)

THE ORIGINS OF THE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

Development is a project of the US and Europe with its _origins in the post-war period. The two world wars had shown _that the colonial world was falling apart. In the post-war peace _the US was at the height of its power, experiencing relative _hegemony in the world. The politics of the post-war period were _the West's response to the upheavals of war which had left a _divided and fragmented globe. To maintain its position of power _the US needed a vision of a new global order that was not based _on political dominion. The heir to colonialism was to be _development founded on economic interdependence. The West had _"won", was better and superior, but was magnanimously willing to _share its capitalism with the rest of the world. By positing a _universal account of the development of economies, and by _offering assistance in the transition to `modern' society, the _West could hope to confer on the `losers' a sense of _participation in the spoils of the wars. It was on 20 January _1949, in his inauguration speech before Congress, that US _president Harry Truman named the largest part of the world as _"underdeveloped areas", and in so doing reduced the tremendous _

H 35 612 612 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Hvariety of peoples, places and cultures to a single category _defined purely by their economic state relative to that of the _US. According to Truman in 1949, "greater production is the key _to prosperity and peace" and he therefore determined "to relieve _the suffering of these peoples" by providing a programme of _technical assistance, which was designed to increase _productivity. The 1949 Point Four Programme and Kennedy's _programmes, including the Alliance for Progress in Latin America _and the Peace Corps put development at the centre of the stage. _The post-war period defined the world for the first time as a _global economic arena. As Vincent Tucker has stated "orthodox development came to _hinge on the certainty of a universal modernity"._0 0 0 10201 0_Tucker, 1992, p.10_0 0 2 18 612_ The _development process was based on the assumption that modern _society was the culmination of an evolutionary process where _societies moved from one fixed stage to the next, these fixed _stages occurring in a definite order. Thus the world was seen to _consist of different societies, all at different stages of _development, and those societies that were `more' developed than _others reflected the stages yet to be reached by the `less' _developed. This understanding of development was based in the _experience of European societies and universalised so that it _became the future of all societies. While development was _presented as a theory of economic evolution, with economic growth _leading to expanded productive capacity, its ideological _underpinnings were not just economic or capitalist. Academics of _all disciplines - sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, _not just economists - contributed to the project. Vincent Tucker _has distinguished between two different processes of change _involved in development, "one concerns the production of goods, _H 32 558 558 1 0 0 0 1 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0Hthe mastery over nature, rational organisation and technological _efficiency. The second concerns the production of structures of _power and ideology"._0 0 0 4285 0_Tucker, 1992, pp.4-5_0 0 2 18 612_ According to Tucker while the West _indicated its willingness to share technology and the creation of _wealth, it was not so willing to share power and the production _of non-scientific knowledge. That development, as a theory of economic and technological _evolution, emerged in the context of a discourse on _human _cultural evolution_, is not often pointed out. This discourse was _initiated by Charles Darwin in the nineteenth century and renewed _by physical anthropologist, Sherwood Washburn, in the late _forties and early fifties. Just as Darwin was pondering the _origins of the species stories were being brought back by _colonists, explorers and missionaries. Evidence of primitive _peoples led to speculation that western civilisation had emerged _from just such tribes which were seen as savage and barbaric.Sherwood Washburn is the name most associated with the "Man the _Hunter" theory of human evolution, a theory which places man on _the bottom rung of a ladder of increasing sophistication and _complexity which ultimately leads via development to _"civilisation". In this account "Man the Hunter" emerges as an _extension of nineteenth century anthropology which existed to _"maintain belief in the existence of exotic and alien worlds _without fusing the alien with our world"._0 0 54 8569 0_McGrane, 1989, p.3_0 0 2 18 558_ Donna Haraway reads _"Man the Hunter" as a story, an elaborate narrative, constructed _mainly by white, middle-class, western males living in the _post-war period. She sees it as part of a story about,H 30 522 522 2 0 0 0 1 1 90 0 0 0 0 0 0H_the construction of self from the raw material of the _other, the appropriation of nature in the production of _culture, the ripening of the human from the soil of the _animal, the clarity of white from the obscurity of _colour, the issue of man from the body of woman, the _elaboration of gender from the resources of sex, the _emergence of mind by the activation of body._ 1 1 0 1__0 0 0 10201 0_Haraway, 1989, p.11_0 0 2 18 612_As Bernard McGrane has stated "the invention of culture, via the _recognition and construction of other cultures, marked a _monumental event in the western tradition"._0 0 54 8977 0_McGrane, 1989, p.5_0 0 2 18 558_ However by 1950 the _roots of the world wars in fascism and racism needed to be _addressed. Anthropology could no longer continue to supply _evidence of "primitive peoples" who were "backward" and were to _be "civilised" by western influences - there was to be a new role _for anthropology. Primary among the institutions set up to _facilitate the process of development was the United Nations _(UN). Man the Hunter's emphasis on our common origins and the _potential that existed for "primitive peoples" to be modernised _provided that basis for the United Nations. The United Nations _was founded on the concept of the "united family of man", a world _made up of different peoples, but who all possessed a common _humanity. Significantly, Sherwood Washburn developed his _theory of Man the Hunter while funded by the Wenner-Gren _Foundation of UNESCO, which would seem to lend credence to the _belief that "anthropology ... does not simply describe its _subject matter; it systematically constructs and produces it" McGrane, 1989, p.4

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This humanism with its attendant notions of human rights and _equality, infused the post-war era with an optimism born of a belief in the inevitability of progress. However this understanding of progress was rooted in the time of the English _and French revolutions and the Age of the Enlightenment, an age _that saw the emergence of the modern economy, the state, the _rights of man, but not all men, and not women. Since the late _1960's it has become obvious that development has not led to _modernisation as expected, "progress" is not happening, - despite _technological assistance the Third World has not experienced _"growth" as expected. As Charlene Spretnak has stated, "the _paradox of modernity, for all who believe in the forward march of _rationalist, science-based progress, is how the modern project _could have yielded so many destructive dynamics for the person, _the community, the nation, and the biosphere ..."._0 0 0 10405 0_Spretnak, 1991, p.196_0 0 2 18 612_ Developers _and planners have been trying to refine and redefine the concept _of development. "Sustainable development" is the most recent _innovation in development rhetoric. "SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT": WOMEN AND THE ENVIRONMENT "Sustainable development" has been popularised since the _publication of the report of the World Conference on Environment _and Development (WCED). The report, _Our Common Future_, addressed _the vexatious issue of growth. With the `discovery' in the early _seventies, at about the same time as the oil crisis, that our _resources are apparently finite, it was suggested that economic _growth was no longer tenable at the projected rates, and it _became necessary to "manage" our resources and our environment _more efficiently.H 32 558 558 1 0 0 0 1 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0H Two of the main targets of the WCED report are women and the _environment, and since its publication women and the environment _have been central in the concerns of those responsible for _development policy. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) set up a _Senior Women's Advisory Group on Sustainable Development (SWAGSD _or SWAG). Simultaneously donor institutions such as the World _Bank, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the _Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) began to develop _women and environment perspectives and programmes. Yet _"sustainable development" despite an apparent concern for the _impact of development on the environment and on women, is based _on similar premises as those that underlie traditional approaches _to development. This understanding of sustainable development is _based on a representation of the body, nature and the cosmos as _machines that are manipulable and requiring control and _domination and is rooted in the scientific revolution and _Enlightenment philosophy. Bonnie Kettel writes that "without _explicit support for women and their legitimate environmental _interests, no initiative or activity should be funded or _recognised as a "women and environment" project"._0 0 0 10201 0_Kettel, 1993, p.12_0 0 2 18 612_ Kettel argues _that "the WCED approach to sustainable development is centred in _a view of nature that is implicitly culture-bound and _male-biased" and fails "to challenge our view of nature as a _"resource" to be "managed" for the pursuit of profit in global _development"._0 0 54 2857 0_Kettel, 1993, p.13_0 0 2 18 558_H 28 486 522 2 0 0 0 1 1 90 0 0 0 0 0 0H Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva, a white, western social _scientist with involvement in the feminist movement and an Indian _nuclear physicist with involvement in the ecology movement, have _recently published a book together. They write that the dominant _system: _emerged, is built upon and maintains itself through the _colonisation of women, of `foreign' peoples and their _lands; and of nature, which it is gradually destroying. _As feminists actively seeking women's liberation from _male domination, we could not, however, ignore the fact _that `modernisation' and `development' processes and _`progress' were responsible for the degradation of the _natural world. We saw that the impact on women of _ecological disasters and deterioration was harder than _on men, and also, that everywhere, women were the first _to protest against environmental destruction._ 1 1 0 1__0 0 0 10609 0_Mies and Shiva, 1993, pp.2-3_0 0 2 18 612_Ecofeminists and women in the Third World are pointing out the _everyday resistances that women are making to preserve their _subsistence way of life in the face of the destructive tendencies _of development projects. Throughout the world, women constitute _approximately 60-80% of the membership of most environmental _organisations - averaging 60% of the membership of _general-interest environmental groups, 80% or more of small _grass-roots groups and animal rights groups._0 0 54 9385 0_Seager, 1993, p.269_0 0 2 18 558_ In Kenya the _women of the Greenbelt movement are replanting trees to prevent _desertification, in India the women of the Narmada Valley Dam _Project are campaigning for smaller dams made of local materials _H 30 522 522 2 0 0 0 1 1 90 0 0 0 0 0 0Hby local labour, women are campaigning against chalk-mining and _logging in the Himalayas, in the US Lois Gibbs has started a _major anti-toxics campaign, women in the Ukraine and Europe were _foremost in campaigning about consequences of Chernobyl, in _Germany women have campaigned against the proposed construction _of a nuclear power plant at Whyl -the list appears endless these _days. Most well-known of all these campaigns is the case of the _women of the Chipko movement in India who have been successful in _halting deforestation.THE CHIPKO MOVEMENT___do not axe these oaks and pines -nurture them, protect them, From these trees the streams get their waterand the fields their green.Look how the rhododendron smilesin the forest ..._ 3 3 0 3_ from a Garhwali folk song by Ghan Shyam Shailani_0 0 0 12649 0_Cranney, 1993, p.75_0 0 2 18 612_ Forests play an important role in all our lives, regulating _levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, providing _raw materials for paper, furniture and housing. However in the _First World, apart from those who work in the forestry industry, _few people directly experience their interdependence with the _trees. This is not the case in other parts of the world where _forests have provided the basis of swidden cultivation, hunting, _and the gathering of non-timber forest produce. The health of _H 32 558 558 1 0 0 0 1 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0Hforests, in turn, has an impact on the health of soils, _(especially in the hills) and the availability of ground and _surface water for irrigation and drinking. In India "an _estimated 30 million or more people in the country depend wholly _or substantially on such forest produce for a livelihood"._0 0 0 12241 0_Agarwal, 1992, p.129_0 0 2 18 612_ _Forests are central to the life of Indian villagers. According _to Jawahara Saidullah, the villagers "do not regard them as the _dark and dangerous places that their counterparts in the more _temperate regions do. They are instead a symbol of balance, _harmony and well-being in nature."_0 0 54 7345 0_Saidullah, 1993, p.84_0 0 2 18 558_ As a legacy of the colonial period in India, state control _of forests and village commons continues to grow, having a _significant impact on the everyday lives of millions of people.Independence for India in 1949 did not bring an end to _exploitation of the country's natural resources, as Nehru adopted _a policy of Westernisation. Massive deforestation is attributed _to dam and road construction leading to what Vandana Shiva has _termed "maldevelopment"._0 0 90 5305 0_Shiva, 1988_0 0 2 18 522_ Women and children are the ones most adversely affected by _deforestation. Many men have migrated to the towns and cities to _find work, placing full responsibility for the household on _women. As primary workers at home and in fields, deforestation _results in more and harder work for women whose lives are _intimately bound up with the forests. Forests provide women with _branches for firewood, leaves for cattlefodder, pine resin, and _H 28 486 486 3 0 0 0 1 1 126 0 0 0 0 0 0Hherbal medicines. Large scale deforestation leads to land _slides. Women now have to walk further and climb higher to _gather fuel and fodder. Lack of adequate fuel effects the _dietary intact of women and children, women spend longer looking _for fuel and less time growing and cooking food. Frequently _women resort to more inefficient fuel sources, which can be smoky _and lead to diseases of the eye and respiratory system. In 1973 the women of the Gopeshwar and Mandel in the central _Himalayas revived a 19th century tradition developed by hill _women who hugged trees to protect them for being cut down. The _Chipko movement, Chipko meaning "to hug or to embrace", was born _when villagers successfully prevented the Symonds company of _Allahabad cutting down ash trees for use in making sports _equipment._0 0 0 2449 0_Saidullah, 1993, p.84_0 0 2 18 612_ The resistance to this encroachment has taken _traditional Gandhian form, in the power of _satyagraha_, or _peaceful non-co-operation. The movement placed emphasis on _forests as areas of soil and water conservation, rather than as a _source of timber and resin. The demand of the Chipko movement _was not for a bigger share in the commercial development of the _forest for local people, but for an alternative system in which _fuel, food, animal fodder and recycled organic waste all played a _part. Women are resisting the process of development throughout _the world and for environmentalists and ecofeminists alike the _Chipko movement has become a symbol of possibilities.H 32 558 558 1 0 0 0 1 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0HWOMEN AND THE ENVIRONMENT: CHALLENGING THE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT _PROCESS According to Joni Seager:_the prominence and distinctiveness of grassroots _environmentalism as a women's activity, when combined _with the evidence of differences between men's and _women's attitudes to environmental issues suggests the _possibility that we are witnessing the emergence of a _distinctive women's voice on the environment. This _sense of carving out a niche of our own is a source of _empowerment for many women._0 0 0 6937 0_Seager, 1993, p.269_0 0 2 18 612__ 1 1 0 1_Women's involvement in grassroots campaigns, and their _significant successes are providing new representations of women. These representations of women are providing an alternative to _the postmodern challenge to feminism. Postmodernism seems to _suggest that there is to be an emphasis on difference, on _differences between white middle-class western feminism and _feminism that is emerging from the Third World, and on other _differences of geography, language, sexuality, class, race ... _that there can no longer be "a women's movement", because women _throughout the world are different. However these resistances are not based on an understanding _of woman as innately the same, or as closer to nature than man, _but emerge out of women's material efforts to sustain their own _lives and the lives of their families. For Mies and Shiva_:H 31 540 558 1 0 0 0 1 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0HThe common ground for women's liberation and the _preservation of life on earth is to be found in the _activities of those women who have become victims of the _development process and who struggle to conserve their _subsistence base: for example, the Chipko women in _India, women and men who actively oppose mega dam _construction, women who fight against nuclear power _plants and against the irresponsible dumping of toxic _wastes around the world, and many more world-wide._0 0 0 11629 0_Mies and Shiva, 1993, p.12_0 0 2 18 612__ 1 1 0 1_Ethel Crowley believes that "it is only by using the tools of _ethnographic analysis that we can embark on a study of `cultural' _resistance as it is practised by ordinary people, particularly _women"._0 0 54 1837 0_Crowley, 1991, p.51_0 0 2 18 558_ Bonnie Kettel writes "a central task for women and _environment research, I suggest, is to document women's _landscapes and the challenges to women's images of the natural _environment and the styles of environmental decision-making that _are implicit in externally-imposed agenda, even in the guise of _sustainable development."_0 0 90 5509 0_Kettel, 1993, p.13_0 0 2 18 522_ Women must continue to provide new _representations of women and women's resistances as a challenge _to the global development process which destroys the basis of _survival for all of us, man and woman, animals and plants alike.

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