Karl Marx has had a major impact on the sociological understanding of work. Marx argued that the primary motivation for productive activities was the desire for profits. He also developed the idea of alienation which describes the way in which individual workers become separated from the products of their labour, from each other and from other classes through the organisation of production in specifically capitalist ways. (Bilton, Bonnett, Jones, Lawson, Skinner, Stanworth, Webster, 2002: 10-11) Overall Marx sociological thought taught people how economic systems especially capitalism can create deep conflicts of interest even though all individuals within them think they are behaving in a perfectly reasonable way.
However, Marx's never just focused on economic issues. He always places economic events within their wider social and historical context. The `guiding principle' (Marx 1859, 20) of his work the materialist theory of history is summarised by Marx as follows.
‘In the social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely relations of production appropriate to a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political superstructure . . . The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. (Marx 1859, 20-1) at http://www.kent.ac.uk/secl/philosophy/ss/MXENC.HTM accessed 8th December 2003)
Today Marx’s theory is still a key issue when people think about work and profit seems to be of main concern to most people more so perhaps than in the past.
A major issue in work is gender and the feminist theory has had a major impact on work in society. It is very clear that the character of work has been changing dramatically in recent years. At the turn of the twentieth century there were hardly any women employed and a study from understanding the Gender Gap; (Dale, 160-61) shows that women tended only to work in specific areas such as nursing, and domestic service and manufacturing. (Blau, Ferber, Winkler 1998: 28-29) However since the second wave of feminism which took off in the late 1960’s and 1970’s,women have started to move into more occupational jobs and in the UK women now account for almost half of all jobs. Second wave feminist theorists made a big distinction between men and women and brought about more equality in work. Some women are pleased with this movement as they believe that work gives them an identity just like Richard Reeves says however there are a lot of women who have no choice but to work due to the increased economic needs of the family. Therefore one income per household is not enough and women have to work to support the ever increasing leisure pursuits that children like to do which are expensive. (England, Farkas, 1986: 18, 35) As well as working a woman has to bring up children and run the house therefore to many women work is not as wonderful as Richard Reeves says it is. A feminist called Kate Millett wrote a book called Sexual Politics, in which she said,
‘…our society, like all other historical civilisations is a patriarchy. The fact is evident at once if one recalls that the military, industry, technology, universities, science, political office, and finance-in short every avenue of power in the society, including the coercive force of the police, is entirely in male hands.’ (p.25) (Hughes, 1998: 77)
This shows that there was and still is a lot of discrimination between men and women but the wave of feminism shows that work is more important to women now than it was several hundred years ago.
Another social theory about work is Ethnicity. For various cultural reasons and age considerations, economic activity rates vary between ethnic groups in the UK. (Bilton, Bonnett, Jones, Lawson, Skinner, Stanworth, Webster, 2002; 313-312) For many people there is a lot of racism in the work place and work is not a provider of fun but rather prejudice and discrimination. For example in many third world countries people are used as cheap labour in sweat factories to make shoes and clothes that are then sold at very high prices in the Western countries. To the workers in the sweat factories work is not a provider of a wonderful identity and they don’t love their work. In the United Kingdom, the rate of unemployment for the ethnic minority population is higher than that for the white population. When people from an ethnic minority have secured a job there is often a lot of unfair discrimination in terms of full recognition of achievement and promotion. Jones’ (1993) analysis of occupational structure, for example , showed that ethnic minorities were disproportionately clustered in jobs deemed to be lower skilled, and were notably under-represented in senior management grades in large organisations- a situation similarly experienced by women (Noon and Blyton, 2002: 270-271). Many ethnic minorities also experience harassment. For example one case of harassment was so bad it was brought to public attention. A UK Postal worker left a suicide note explaining how he had been racially harassed at work (The Guardian 2001, 9th January). Cases such as these show that for many, the harsh reality is that work becomes an unpleasant social interaction and harassment just becomes part of everyday life. (Noon and Blyton, 2002: 272)
There are many theorists such as Herzberg, Taylor and Maslow who came up with theories about how and why people work. Maslow is known for establishing the theory of a hierarchy of needs, he said that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied.
According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs "deficiency needs." As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-actualization. Satisfying needs is healthy; blocking gratification makes us sick or evil. Maslow's Hierarchy of needs shows that work is a process for getting to the top and being completely satisfied rather like Reeves Suggests. (Gwynne,1997:Maslow’s,Hierarchyofneeds) http://www.web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
Another theorist called Herzberg considered the things that satisfy people about their work, and the things that dissatisfy them. He argued that if a firm reduced factors that dissatisfy people, which would not in itself motivate them. However, it would avoid potential problems and the possibility of lower productivity as a result. He called these two factors – motivators and hygiene factors. (Accessed 9th December 2003 http://www.bized.ac.uk/stafsup/options/work/motiv.htm). Hertzberg’s theory does not suggest that work is about relationships or identity like Reeves suggests but just about being satisfied.
Another theorist called Taylor developed the "scientific management" as he worked his way up from a labourer to a works manager in a US steelworks. From his observations, Taylor made three key assumptions about human behaviour at work. Firstly he said man is a rational economic animal concerned with maximising his economic gain. Secondly people respond as individuals, not as groups and thirdly people can be treated in a standardised fashion, like machines. Taylor’s view was that people were purely motivated by money and therefore people should be paid to how much they produce (piece-rate). He believed that people who did not deliver a fair days work should receive less money or even nothing and the people who did more than a fairs day work should be paid more (. Taylor’s theory is not followed by many as it does not seem realistic and people work for reason such as to make friends not just to make money like Reeves suggests.
There are many sociological theories about the issue of work and it seems evident that work is central to everyday life and it has a different impact on each individual. For some people like Reeves suggests work is who you are and it is a provider of friends, comfort and belonging but for others work is not enjoyable and often there is a lot of harassment, racism and discrimination. Work is also as important as it was hundreds of years ago however for women it is more important than ever before.
Bibliography
Bilton Tony, Bonnett Kevin, Jones Pip, Lawson Tony, Skinner Davis, Stanworth Michelle, Webster Andrew (2002 fourth edition) Introduction to Sociology, Bath: Palgrave
Noon Mike and Blyton Paul (2002 second edition) The realities of work, Hampshire; Palgrave
England Paula and Farkas George (1986): Households, employment and gender: A Social and Demographic View, New York Aldine De Gruyter
Hughes Kate (1998) Every girls guide to feminism, South Melbourne Australia: Longman
Dunkerley David (1975) Occupations and Society, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul
D.Blau Francine, Ferber A. Marianne, Winkler E. Anne (1998 third edition) The Economics of Women, Men and Work, Upper Saddle River United States of America:
Thomas, K (1999) ‘Introduction’ in K. Thomas (ed) The Oxford Book of work, Oxford: Oxford University press, p xiv
(Tutor2u: 2003) (accessed 9th December 2003)
(accessed 9th December 2003)
(Gwynne, 1997: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs) (accessed 9th December 2003)
(Marx 1859, 20-1) at http://www.kent.ac.uk/secl/philosophy/ss/MXENC.HTM (accessed 8th December 2003)
(The Guardian 2001, 9th January)
Anna Metzger
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