Drugs and crime are of concern to all communities, particularly drug possession, manufacture and trafficking, the involvement of criminal syndicates in the drugs trade, the acquisitive crime committed by drug misusing offenders to feed their habits, and the anti-social behaviour and feeling of menace that the drug culture generates within neighbourhoods. Many police forces estimate that around half of all recorded crime has some drug related element to it, whether in terms of individual consumption or supply of drugs, or the consequent impact of it on criminal behaviour.1 This essay will seek to examine the connection between drugs and crime. It will aim to define what a 'drug' is, the extent to drug use among offenders, the volume of crime committed in order to obtain drugs, or feed drug habits and also the sorts of crimes committees using drugs as an aid e.g. date rape. The use of illegal and legal drugs will be looked at in their connection to crime. This essay will concentrate mainly upon the problem of drug use in relation to crime in the UK, with an occasional consideration of the problem in the USA. It will also indicate which criminological theories best assist our understanding of drug related crimes.
Initially, we will look at the definition of a drug. Technically 'a drug is and substance which modifies the functions of an organism'. 2 Alcohol and heroin are both considered depressants, whereas caffeine, tobacco and amphetamines are all stimulants. Other drugs such as LSD and cannabis can distort the users perceptions. However, the physical properties of are drug is not related to the approval it is met with in society.
Drugs are used for a variety of reasons. Doctors to aid the healing of a patient prescribe many drugs; alcohol is used for relaxation and sociability. Therefore, many drugs are seen as perfectly normal. There is a very fine line that divides normal and abnormal drug use, and this will vary across societies. Alcohol can be encouraged in some cultures, but prohibited in others. In countries such as Dubai, alcohol is illegal, and being caught drinking by the police anywhere other than a licensed bar can be severely punished. Also, using drugs to treat an illness is seen as perfectly normal, while using the same drugs for non-medical purposes is seen as abnormal. Drugs become a problem when 'misuse' or 'abuse' of a drug starts. For example excessive drinking is associated with abuse, as is the use of illegal drugs. Cannabis, amphetamines, heroin, cocaine, LSD and ecstasy are the most widely used illegal drugs, and it is these drugs that are controlled by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. In the UK, illegal drugs are classified into three main categories.
They can be Class A (e.g. Heroin), B (e.g. Cannabis) or C (e.g. 'Poppers'), with A attracting the most serious punishments and fines.
Under the Misuse of Drugs Act, it is an offence to unlawfully possess a controlled drug, to possess a controlled drug with intent to supply it, to unlawfully supply (sell/give/share) a controlled drug or to allow premises you occupy or manage to be used for the smoking or use of drugs.
As can be seen, selling, producing or using some drugs are in themselves acts of criminality, as is driving under the influence of drugs. While these account for many offences, greater fears are aroused by the extent to which taking drugs leads to secondary crime. This can happen in several ways.
Much of the drugs industry is associated with organised crime, with the manufacture, distribution and sale of prohibited drugs. It is very difficult to estimate the extent and impact of this form of crime. Organised crime supplies an enormous range of prohibited services and commodities and produces, distributes and sells a range of products, including drugs. Drugs can be 'trafficked', and drugs money is laundered in a variety of illegal and semi-illegal ways, such as counterfeiting. Trafficking in illicit drugs tends to be associated with the commission of violent crimes. Reasons for the relationship
of drug trafficking to violence include the competition for drug markets and customers, disputes and rip-offs among individuals involved in the illegal drug market. Individuals who participate in drug trafficking are prone to using violence and locations where street drug markets proliferate tend to be disadvantaged economically and socially; legal and
social controls against violence in such areas tend to be ineffective.
One of the most important elements of this so-called secondary criminality is the link between property crime and drugs. Obviously, drug users require large amounts of money to fund their habit, and as they ...
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of drug trafficking to violence include the competition for drug markets and customers, disputes and rip-offs among individuals involved in the illegal drug market. Individuals who participate in drug trafficking are prone to using violence and locations where street drug markets proliferate tend to be disadvantaged economically and socially; legal and
social controls against violence in such areas tend to be ineffective.
One of the most important elements of this so-called secondary criminality is the link between property crime and drugs. Obviously, drug users require large amounts of money to fund their habit, and as they are rarely able to meet the demand for these costs through legitimate sources, they need to commit crime. An out of control drug user is likely to 'commit 80 to 100 serious property offences per year, or if female, resort to prostitution'. 3
Drug-related crime is not only a problem when considering illegal drugs. It is well known that 'pub-fights' are the main part of any policeman/woman's job on a Saturday night. Alcohol can sometimes seem to alter a person's personality, with sometimes devastating results. In a survey carries out among victims of crime, about 28% of the victims of violence reported that the offender was using drugs, alone or in combination with alcohol. Based on victim perceptions, about 1.2 million violent crimes occurred each year in which victims were certain that the offender had been drinking. For about 1 in 4 of these violent victimizations involving alcohol use by the offender, victims believed the offender was also using drugs at the time of the offence.
The table over the page shows the percentage in convicted inmates whose crime was committed in order to obtain drugs, and also the type of crime committed.
Percentage of jail inmates who committed offence to get money for drugs.
OFFENCE
996
1999
Total
15.8%
13.3%
Violent
8.8%
11.5%
Property
25.6%
24.4%
Drugs
23.5%
14%
Public Order
4.2%
3.3%
4
In the USA, an estimated 61,000 convicted jail inmates dais they had committed their crime to obtain drugs. Of convicted property and drug offenders, about 1 in 4 had committed their crime to get money for drugs.
Public perception of drug-related crime shows a similar picture. The graph below shows that, in a survey conducted by the Home Office in 1997, drugs come very high in the views about what causes crime. As can be seen, 23% of respondents feel that drugs are the main cause of crime, second only to poor parental discipline at 26%.
5
Also, in the same survey, were views on drug-related crime. This can be seen in the graph below. As can be seen, using drugs and stealing to pay for drugs is a big problem to a large percentage of people questioned.
6
Arrestees frequently test positive for recent drug use. Male arrestees charged with drug sale/possession were the most likely to test positive for drug use. Female arrestees
charged with prostitution or drug sale/possession were the most likely to test positive. Both males and females arrested for burglary and robbery had high positive rates.7 Latest indications from a random sample of suspected offenders arrested by the police suggest that over 600/0 of arrestees have traces of illegal drugs in their urine. Incarcerated offenders were often under the influence of drugs when they committed their offense. Drug offenders, burglars, and robbers are the most likely to report having been under the influence of drugs. This is clearly indicated in the graph in the next page. This graph also shows the kind of offences committed while on drugs, as well as the percentage of drug crimes themselves committed.
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There is a clear link between violence and drug-related crime. Many drug 'organisations' frequently employ those people with a past history of violence, or those who are comfortable with violence to collect out standing debts from substance users. Violent crimes include offences of homicide, grievous bodily harm, wounding, or actual bodily harm. Some figures include robbery as violent, personal or contact crime. Some figures also include sexual offences such as rape and sexual assault. This brings us to another way in which drugs and crime can be linked and that is the actual use of drugs to commit a crime. The most common form of this is know as 'Date Rape', the drug used is known as GBH. GHB also known as Bodily Harm (GBH), Liquid X, Easy Lay and other street names, is a potent date rape drug, in some ways easier to use than rohypnol, but with the same effects. It is promoted as a growth hormone aid, a diet aid and a stimulant.
GHB comes in liquid form, and is often home produced by people who know a little about drugs and their effects. Due to the fact that it is in liquid form rather than tablet form it is much easier to slip into an unsuspecting females drink than some of the other date rape drugs. This is done with either an eyedropper or off a bottle cap, and only a few drops can render the victim confused, dazed, drowsy and unconscious within the space of 15 minutes. The effects can last from 2 to 8 hours. The drug is hard to detect, as it is colourless and odourless, although some reports suggest it has a slightly salty taste.
Are there any factors that can contribute to a person's increased likelihood of becoming a drug user? Are men more likely to use drugs than women? What about age and social class? The recreational drug use among young people has increased in recent years. This is very problematic as young people most often can find themselves unemployed, or in full-time education, or even still at school, and be unable to legally fund expensive drug habits. This is when crime comes into play. Young people takes drugs largely for pleasure.
Women have always been more reluctant to use drugs than men as it can be seen as 'unfeminine', but the latest statistics have shown that girls are 'catching up' with boys and that they now frequently use ecstasy. 9 A major problem that has stemmed out of female drug abuse in that of prostitution. Many women cannot afford to fund what quickly becomes a very expensive habit, and so have to resort to selling their bodies in order to meet their own demand.
There is no simple relationship between drugs and social class. Illegal drug use has often been associated with poverty and deprivation, as has alcohol abuse. However, there are many professionals that can become addicted, as can people who have been prescribed drugs initially, but become dependant on them after their course of drugs finish. It has been well publicised recently that many young professional workers are now resorting to speed, or other forms of stimulants to get them through a day at work, as life can be so stressful at times. It is also well known about he numbers of actors and models who end up in drying out clinics due to their drug habits. Despite the involvement of all social classes, it is mainly the lower-class youth that drug use had a different impact than on those users from other social classes. It is those from the lower classes that cannot afford the drugs they become addicted too, and it is therefore these people who resort to crime to try and pay for their habit.
It is not, however, only crime that stems from drug use. Drug use can also stem from crime. The best example of this is, again, that of prostitution. Many women earn a vast sum of money in this illegal pursuit, and one of the ways in which they are choosing to spend it is on the illegal drugs market.
What criminological theories best assist in our understanding of the link between drugs and crime? There are numerous theories that could be mentioned. However, for the purpose of this essay, sub-cultural theory, anomie, alienation and labelling theory will be considered.
Many sociological approaches have been applied to drug use and the criminalization of drugs was of particular interest to theories critical of pathological approaches as they illustrated the relative nature of criminal law and a labelling process in which drug takers, labelled as deviant, were cast in the role of 'outsiders'.
To early sub-cultural theorists, drug sub-cultures were examples of retreatist sub-cultures as they appeared to imply a rejection of mainstream culture and the adoption of a retreatist lifestyle associated with, for example, hobos or tramps or bohemian musicians and artists. Later sub-cultural theories saw drug taking as part of a youthful rebellion, and the hippies and other drug users of the 1960's and early 1970's were seen as part of a counter-culture expressed through underground magazines which gave advice, among other things, on how to grow marijuana. 10
Drug users and sub-cultures also provided a good illustration of the central themes of labelling theory. (Becker 1963). The labelling theory suggests that social control may exacerbate deviance or crime. By creating 'outsiders', we then label them deviant, which then affects their subsequent behaviour. Is it because drugs are criminalized that they are so closely intertwined with acts of criminality? To critical criminologists, the criminalisation of drug use was a further example of the use of the criminal law against groups whose alternative lifestyles were perceived as a threat. It was also argued that the criminal law' amplified the problem of illegal drug use by encouraging the involvement of professional and organised crime.' 11
There is also the concept of anomie, which plays an important part in our understanding of drugs and crime. Anomie means the lack of the usual social standards in either groups or an individual. This can be clearly seen in the connection between drugs and crime, as the majority of 'normal' citizens would not even consider robbing a neighbour's house to obtain money for drugs. Emile Durkheim first introduced the concept of anomie in his 1897 paper 'Le Suicide'. As can be seen, he focused on the concept of a person's world falling apart, leading to suicide, but this can also be applied to leading to crime. A person on drugs can become a desperate individual, and they can lose contact with their family, with their friends, and can lose all aspects of their previous life. Anomie can include when people feel that they want the material possessions of society and are encouraged to possess them by advertising and the whole culture. When they cannot get them legally they turn to illegal methods
Alienation is anomie in the extreme. It is total estrangement from normal society. Alienation is either lack of integration in the outside world, or in the individual. This can used to explain the formation of gangs. If a person feels absolutely cut off from expected behavioural norms, then they can seek the support of others that have been alienated in ways similar to themselves. Alienation can contribute to delinquent behaviour. Alienation helps assist our understanding of the link between drugs and crime, as people who are so far alienated are often very vulnerable and open to suggestion. If they fall in with the 'wrong sort of crowd' because these people seem to accept them, it can quickly become a slippery slope to drug abuse.
There are many research problems when considering the extent of illegal drug use. Estimating the extent of illegal drug use is very difficult as a large number of it does go unrecorded. Official statistics indicate numbers of addicts notified to the Home Office and numbers cautioned and convicted for drug offences. Neither of these accurately indicates the extent of illegal drug use, as many offenders do not register, large numbers of illegal drug users are not addicted, and much illegal drug use does not come to the attention of the police. Self-report studies have been the most commonly used method of assessing how many people have experimented with and regularly use different kinds of drugs. The British Crime Survey (BCS) now includes an indication of illegal drug use and a growing number of surveys are carries out amongst young people. Regardless of their problems, these methods of measuring illegal drug use do give some indication of the extent and changing pattern of drug abuse.
In conclusion, the relationship between crime and drugs is full of many complex issues. Criminal activity involving drugs is not restricted to drugs offences, a significant minority of all crime is drug-related, i.e. the proceeds of the offence will be spent on drugs. The Home Office believes that around a third of acquisitive crime is drug-related. 12 Only some drugs are criminalized and studies of illegal drug use reveal that these are widely used in different settings from dance scenes, to cultures in which heroin can be seen as an alternative status symbol. The drugs market produces enormous profits for participants, from growers, producers and traffickers, to local, street level dealers. It also produces a large amount of secondary crime although the extent of this can be exaggerated. It has been argued that the decriminalisation of some drugs would help in the battle against drug-related crime, and Poland has taken steps towards this and has legalised all drugs, including heroin. 13 Some argue that dangerous drugs should be subject to the same licensing laws as tobacco and alcohol, as at least that way it would be easier to keep track of it. Cannabis, in particular, has a strong case for it being legalised. The side effects are less harmful than a normal cigarette or alcohol, and it has beneficial medical effects. A positive step in this direction is the fact that cannabis is being considered as a Class C drug, rather than a Class B. For some, this is the first step towards legalisation. Some also argue that more information on the taking of drugs should be available so that it can be made safer, but some see this as the tolerance of illegal drug use. The battle against drug-related crime will long and on going. It will take a lot of compromising on a lot of parts if a solution to this problem is to be reached. There is no short-term solution.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Bean, P; DRUGS AND CRIME; 2002; Willan Publishing
* Croall, H; CRIME AND SOCIETY IN BRITAIN
* Sanderson, J; CRIMINOLOGY TEXTBOOK, 6th Ed; 1995; The HTL Group Ltd
* Williams, K S; TEXTBOOK ON CRIMINOLOGY, 3rd Ed; 1997; Blackstone Press Ltd
* http://www.findarticles.om
* http://www.google.co.uk
* http://www.drugscope.org.uk
* http://www.crimereduction.gov.uk
* http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk
* http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov
2 www.homeoffice.gov.uk
3 BBC1; Lunchtime News; 22-05-2001
