Mechanisms of PETCO2 and O2 changes during exercise.
Mechanisms of PETCO2 and O2 changes during exercise. End-tidal tensions of oxygen (PETO2) and carbon dioxide (PETCO2) are values that can determine a precise estimate of arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide pressures (PaO2, PaCO2). The method of obtaining these values is done non-invasively by sampling the end of exhalation at the mouth so that the CO2 and O2 measured at the end of a tidal breath reflects alveolar CO2 (LeMura, 2004). PETCO2 is also helpful in determining the adequacy of gas exchange (hypercapnia). The normal resting value of PETO2 is 90mmHg and increases during exercise to allocate the extra work load placed on muscles in the production of energy (Wasserman, 2004). PETO2 has been found to be closely related to PaO2 through changes in VO2 and RER, in young and old patients with normal lung function. When corrections are made for dry or wet gases, the difference seen between PETO2 and PaO2 is very minimal. PETO2 like PETCO2 is helpful as it is easy to measure it also automatically adapts to the actual RER and it allows for the use of an alternative respiratory index entirely based on measured values and not of an assumed RER (Bengtsson, 2001). Normal resting values of PETCO2 are 36-42mmHg and increases by 3-8 mmHg during submaximal exercise, but decreases during heavy, maximal exercise (Babb, 1998). Effects of Disease Though PETCO2 is a good indicator of gas
Within this essay I will be looking at the national governing body known as the Football association otherwise referred to as the FA. I will be looking to discuss the success it has currently and analyse the objectives they have set for future growth.
Identify a national governing body organisation and apply the management theories from lecture notes. Introduction Within this essay I will be looking at the national governing body known as the Football association otherwise referred to as the FA. I will be looking to discuss the success it has currently and analyse the objectives they have set for future growth. A national governing body (NGB) is essential for something to be deemed as a sport as this is where rules and regulations stem from. For something to be considered a sport it has to meet certain criteria. The council of Europe (1992) formerly defined sport as "all forms of physical activity, which through casual or organized participation, aim at improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships, or obtaining results in competition at all levels" (1992, p.1).This definition is widely used as it is seen to embrace both equity and equality into a sporting context. Football meets this objective and both men's and women's football at all levels fall under the same NGB of the FA This sees equality and diversity being implemented as there is no difference in opinions or marketing strategy and the game can be promoted from one establishment. The FA was founded in 1863 as the governing body for the game of football in England. The FA is responsible for all regulatory aspects of the game in
Goal setting is a highly important tool used in sport and exercise and is a current topic in sport psychology literature.
Goal setting is a highly important tool used in sport and exercise and is a current topic in sport psychology literature. Research has confirmed that almost all athletes set goals as an effective performance enhancing strategy (Burton, Weinberg, Yukelson & Weigand, 1998). Goal setting has also been shown to promote positive changes in important psychological states. In order to discuss goal setting, a definition of a goal must be determined. Locke, Shaw, Sarri & Latham (1981) define a goal as attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified time limit. A goal offers a focal point, allowing athletes to target their time and effort into the most useful activities. Setting goals works as they enhance self confidence, direct attention, increase effort, encourage persistence in the face of failure and goal setting can allow new problem solving strategies to be developed (Locke, 1968). Although goals can be useful, the key to effective goal setting is setting the right kind of goals and sticking to them until they are accomplished. They are two main types of goals; subjective and objective. Subjective goals are general statements, such as "I want to do well". They are not stated in specific measurable terms like objective goals. Locke & Latham (1985) stated that specific goals were more effective than subjective goals. This is due to the fact that
Rugby and New Zealand national identity - "A little bit tough - rise and fall of rugby man".
Dongdong Zhang Jan Sinclair & Matthew Bannister FTVMS 100 5 Feb 2004 Meanings and Social Contexts Rugby and New Zealand national identity - "A little bit tough - rise and fall of rugby man" "The appearance of naturalness is always a construction". Naturalness here indicates the appearance that is as close as to the reality. However, the reality itself differs in different people's point of view, therefore how audiences make reception depends on what texts the producers use. Sports influence the identities of even those who claim no interest in sport and that despite claims of disinterest from these people that it impossible to completely avoid the effect that national sports have on identity as 'many collectively experienced and consumed popular cultural forms are far from a matter of individual choice, but are bound up with the political dynamics within and between societies.' (Roche 2000: P178). The above quote correctly demonstrates the theory how rugby affects New Zealand society and being affected by society in reverse. By the 1980s, although women are not well interested in watching and playing rugby, their lives are also negatively influenced by that of men's, which are mostly dominated by rugby, unfortunately, these effects are mostly negative therefore people argue a lot on it. After being dominated, women and some men began to fight back in order to
Discuss the use of drugs in the Olympic Games.
Edward Jessop 6th October 2003 Discuss the use of drugs in the Olympic Games To compete in the modern Olympic Games, to win gold, to stand on the rostrum as the flag is raised and the national anthem played is the dream of many. But it will come true for only a few. Only the gifted, only the dedicated; only the best will win. And maybe a few drug cheats? Modern sport is plagued by suspicions that many top athletes resort to drug-taking - doping - to enhance their performance. They use anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, erythropoietin (EPO), beta-blockers, stimulants or diuretics. While drugs such as these get a lot of publicity, they are perhaps not well understood. What do they do? What are the health risks in the short or long term? Can the drugs be detected? And maybe most important of all, what should be done with the perpetrators? Most people in Britain have heard the sad story of Alain Baxter a British skier. In Salt Lake City he won a bronze medal for his third place in the slalom event. Unfortunately he tested positive for a drug called methamphetamine. Just before his actual event he had a cold due to the freezing conditions in Utah. He decided to use a VIX inhaler to get rid of a bunged up nose. Unluckily for him this VIX inhale contained this banned substance. He tried to convince the IOC that he was not a cheat, but the IOC were having none of
Lou Gehrig
Lou Gehrig Lou Gehrig was born and raised in New York City, the son of German immigrant parents. His full name was Henry Louis Gehrig. After graduating from high school, he attended Columbia University where he became a football and baseball star. Lou's father directed him to becoming a pro baseball player. He became sick and needed on operation, but there was no money for doctors and hospital expenses in the family budget, so young Lou quickly capitalized on his baseball skills. He accepted an offer from a scout to sign a contract with the New York Yankees, for $ 1,500 in cash as a bonus. Lou dropped out of college to play in the minor leagues and gain some experience until the Yankees needed him. Gehrig was 22 when he became a big league rookie. He sat on the bench until one day in June in the 1925 season when he finally broke into the Yankees' line up as a first baseman. It happened because the team's veteran first baseman couldn't play because of a sever headache. He stayed first baseman for fourteen seasons, five thousand eighty-two playing days, he played a total of two thousand, one hundred and thirty major league games. It was a record that will never be broken or even equaled. To create that unbelievable endurance, feat, strong and powerful Lou Gehrig nicknamed "The Iron Horse," played in every one of the two thousand, one hundred and thirty
Should Steroids be banned from all Professional Sports?
Firakh Patel Patel 1 Mr. Broan Lit & Lang /25/04 Should Steroids be banned from all Professional Sports? It's amazing what athletes will do to achieve higher levels of performance and to be better than the competition. Often people do not realize the long-term effects that result from using steroids. Steroids spread to athletes in the Olympics and other major sporting events during the 1950's. The use of steroids among athletes became clear when Canadian sprint runner Ben Johnson tested positive for steroid use after winning the gold medal for the 100-meter dash during the 1988 Olympics. Now a fifteen year old can just walk down to the local gym and find sellers to get the drug that will make him the best of all his classmates. Being an attractive drug, the user forgets about the effects it has on the body. Steroids should be banned from all professional sports because they can cause physical problems and can cause emotional and mental problems. Steroids should be banned from all professional sports because they can cause physical problems. How would you feel of you were taking steroids for athletic purposes and found out that you had liver cancer? You would never be able to play your sport at a high skill level ever again. With one mistake you can change your life completely around. With continued use of steroids you can jeopardize your career and
From Ancient to Modern Olympic Games in Athens.
FROM ANCIENT TO MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES IN ATHENS I - HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION -The ancient Olympic events. There are many different stories about the beginning of the Olympic games. One myth says it was Zeus himself who started the games to celebrate his victory over his father CRONUS for control of the world. Another tradition states that after the Greek hero PELOPS won a chariot race against king OENOMAUS to marry his daughter HIPPODRAMA, he established the games. Since athletics contests were one way that the ancient Greeks honoured their god, it was logical to hold a recurring athletic competition on the site of a major temple. Also, Olympia is convenient Geographically to reach by ship, which was a major concern for the Greeks. Athletes and spectators travelled from Greek colonies as well. The games normally lasted five days during which were held games and different festivities. The festival was also marked by a procession, which required the sacrifice of 100 oxen. Over time, the games flourished and Olympia became a central site of worship of Zeus. The athletes competed for pride patriotism and religious honour. However, some popular athletes were sometimes paid large sums of money, up to ten times the annual salary of a soldier, to participate in smaller athletic contests near their hometowns. Olympic winners received a wreath made of sacred olive tree branch.
Evaluation of the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)
Evaluation of the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) is a comprehensive self report questionnaire, invented by Raymond B. Cattell, that is used to provide in-depth evaluation of the human personality. Cattell et al. (1970) employed a statistical technique called the Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis (MAVA) to identify "surface traits", consistent behavioral responses, and "temperament and ability source traits", underlying variables that determine surface traits. The 16 PF measures these traits by dividing the human personality into sixteen factors - warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension. Each scale score is interpreted as being low score direction vs. high score direction. By adding points for marked choices, factor by factor, raw scores can be obtained (Schuerger, 1992). Cattell et al. (1970) believed that all 16 factors were necessary for a comprehensive measurement of personality. The test has been modified throughout the years, with the 5th edition being the most recent version, and has now established itself as one of the best questionnaires to evaluate personality trait (Reilly, 1996). The 16 PF has overcome other
Critically discuss and evaluate the theories of anxiety in relation to their effectiveness in examining the relationship between anxiety and sports performance.
Critically discuss and evaluate the theories of anxiety in relation to their effectiveness in examining the relationship between anxiety and sports performance The ability to cope with pressure and anxiety is an integral part of sports, particularly among elite athletes (Hardy, Jones & Gould 1996). With anxiety being such an important aspect of sports performance it has been extensively researched. This research has produced a discrepancy in the operational definition of anxiety, with terms such as stress, anxiety and arousal being used interchangeably throughout (Humara ????) Inverted U Hypothesis Yerkes and Dodson (1908) developed their theory, calling it the Inverted U Hypothesis. (((insert graph))) As the diagram suggests for every type of behaviour there exists an optimal level of arousal (usually moderate) that produces an optimal performance. Levels of arousal positioned on this bell shaped graph either above of below this optimal point are side to generate an inferior performance from the athlete. Also the further the arousal level is from the optimal point the worse the performance is said to be. Again this theory was produced as a result of mainstream psychological research and so its validity with relation to sports performance has been questioned (Hardy & Fazey 1987; Neiss 1988). Not only has the validity been questioned but also the face validity of