The scale of the raids, the density of the settlements and the degree of destruction have been greatly exaggerated'. Discuss this assessment of Viking activity in England in the ninth and tenth centuries

'The scale of the raids, the density of the settlements and the degree of destruction have been greatly exaggerated'. Discuss this assessment of Viking activity in England in the ninth and tenth centuries. The entry in the northern version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 793 tells how "In this year terrible omens appeared over the land of the Northumbrians...: these were immense lightning flashes and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky". It goes onto describe how "the ravaging of heathen men miserably destroyed God's church in Lindisfarne through plundering and slaughter". These apocalyptic images helped to support a view of the Vikings, whose name means literally 'pirates', as a mass of (pagan) barbarian invaders who overwhelmed the British Isles. This interpretation of events, notably accepted by Frank Stenton in the 1940s, was (in)famously questioned by Peter Sawyer in an essay of 1958, who argued that the number of invaders, the density of the Danish settlements and, to a certain extent, the degree of Viking destruction had been greatly exaggerated. Sawyer's theory then led to a wave of 'post-revisionism' by historians, including Alfred Smyth, who claim Sawyer's argument is flawed and paints too rosy a picture of Viking activity in England. We must now set out to forge a middle ground between these two sides (for which, Patrick Wormald reminds us, it is necessary

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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How did people explain the 'Black Death' ?

How did people explain the 'Black Death' ? -INTRODUCTION: After a period growth of population and prosperity in agriculture, politics and technology in the High Middle Ages, Europe seemed to be stable which led to a sense of security among people. However, by the end of the thirteenth century Europe entered a period of changes in temperatures known as the ''little ice age'' which caused a shortage in growing seasons and terrible weather conditions. The food shortage caused hunger and starvation. Europe seemed to have reached an upper limit to population growth and the number of poor appeared to have increased clearly. Famine caused chronic malnutrition which led to the increase of infant mortality, lower birthrates and as well higher susceptibility to disease because malnourished people are unable to resist infection. This also help us to explain the high mortality of the Black Death, which is a devastating horrific and terrifying disease or plague which was responsible for millions of death in Europe . The population of Europe became increasingly poor . The origin of the Black Death is not agreed upon by all historians. It is believed to have been originated from Central Asia. The plague was both spread by the Mongols as they expanded across Asia, and by Central Asian rodents that moved westward when ecological changes made their environment inhospitable. The plaque was

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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This paper examines the appeal of the school of Zen to the warrior class and what it offered the changing society of Japan. The main point of appeal of this new religion was that it brought new ideals and values to the people of Japan. Zens focus on

The Kamakura period is particularly important in the history of Japanese religion as it was part of the period of the great religious reforms. Through these various social and religious developments, came the rapid growth of the Zen Buddhist monastic movement. This new Zen Buddhist religion derived from Chinese Ch'an teachings which focused on the use of meditation to gain spiritual enlightenment. The school of Zen largely appealed to the bushi (warrior) class in Japan during this time and a good part of its success was dependant on this factor. This paper examines the appeal of the school of Zen to the warrior class and what it offered the changing society of Japan. The main point of appeal of this new religion was that it brought new ideals and values to the people of Japan. Zen's focus on meditation is especially important as it changed this sect from others in embracing that "enlightenment can only come by direct intuitive perception" (Sansom, 1978, p.338). It does not rely on any sacred foundation, but rather on the individuals understanding of their environment and surroundings (Sansom, 1978, p.339) and it sought to convey this enlightenment non-verbally. The sect of Zen Buddhism offered a different and simpler was of achieving spiritual blessing which allowed them to come to terms with the warrior life and death. At the same time, it opposed the complicated and

  • Word count: 1049
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The Plague

Liga Cimermane Jackie Bartz 20th Century Literature April 29, 2005 The Plague "Through a core of characters, Camus describes their fear, their confusion, their isolation from the loved ones and the outside world, their self-sufficiency, their compassion, and their ultimately inherent humanism as a metaphor for existence." (Tony Bing) Camus knows how to diagnose the emotional and attitude trend that develops in the plague stricken Oran. During the course of a year he takes us through a detailed analysis of how the mood of the society changes with the spread of plague. Yet to me, even more engaging than the development of character of the society, was the individual feelings and transformation of Camus heroes. Camus uses a tactics of a doctor: he takes his heroes, and observes the symptoms of their behavior, letting us judge about their emotions: their fear, confusion, longing for the loved ones. The author show the humanist part of their character and reveals their feelings towards each other and the society by how actively they are participating to fight the plague. Rieux, one of the main heroes of The Plague, is a doctor. He is one of the first heroes that notice the spread of the plague: "inside the room a word was echoing still; the plague." (Camus 36) Doctor knows about the disease, but does not run away to escape it, he wants authorities to close the diminish the

  • Word count: 1315
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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Response to Pandemic Death: The Black Death in Europe

Response to Pandemic Death: The Black Death in Europe In his what some perceive to be his best known work, The Decameron, Boccaccio writes about his experience as a witness to the infamous 1348 pandemic known as the Black Death. The Decameron is a collection of stories about the Black Death, in one of which he wrote "The healthiest of all humans ate breakfast in the morning with their relatives, companions or friends, and had dinner that evening in another world with their ancestor"(Boccaccio)! This image suggests the rapid and serious nature of the Black Death that killed nearly 25 million people in Europe from 1347-1352(Janis, Rice, Pollard). As would be expected, a pandemic such as this had immense effects on the people of Europe who witnessed it; people reacted in a variety of ways, some rejected religion and lived a more "sensual life," others lived in seclusion, or even resorted to self-inflicted punishment. So how exactly did the Black Death effect the people of Europe? What were their responses to the pandemic? How did these responses effect the social, religious, political and economic structures of medieval Europe? Some, like Zeigler would say that the course of Europe "changed by the coming of the Black Death, which did but accelerate a movement already in being,"(258) suggesting that the Black Death was merely a catalyst for change. Perhaps this is true, but

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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To what degree was the Black Prince the epitome of the Age of Chivalry?

To what degree was the Black Prince the epitome of the 'Age of Chivalry'? When medieval historians think about chivalry, one of the first names to be mentioned is Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince. However was he the epitome of this 'Age of Chivalry'? He is certainly regarded highly in both terms of his modern reputation and in his reputation within the contemporary sources is also very high. Chivalry was a real issue to the nobles of the fourteenth century England and France. It was their way of life and how they would be judged. Men of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries would 'probably prefer to be remembered for the chivalric glories of Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt'.1 The Black Prince participated in two of these battles and is regarded as being a military genius. He fought at Crécy at just 16 years old and helped see the English forces win the battle as well as masterminding the battle of Poitiers whereby king John of France, along with many French nobles, was captured. To see if the Black Prince was the epitome of the 'Age of Chivalry' then we must look at the different areas that chivalry entailed. This would mainly be in the form of battles, how he fought, commanded and how he treated his prisoners. As well as this it can be seen in how he lived his general lifestyle, from his treatment of his provinces to his eventual marriage. However not everything that

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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How important was royal patronage in the establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empire 1415-1550

How important was Royal Patronage in the Establishment and Development of the Portuguese Overseas Empires in the Years 1415-1550? The Portuguese overseas empire were established and developed by a number of closely associated and integrated factors that had fluctuating levels of significance throughout this period. The factors also had differing importance in firstly, the separate processes of establishment and development of empire, and secondly in the different areas of Portuguese empire; Africa, India and Brazil. It is important to discern in which area and for what process they were most significant to and at what times. The focus centred on royal patronage and the historical debate surrounding Prince Henrique, and the role of notable individuals within the Portuguese empire such as Francisco de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque. Other causes including religious fervour from the strong crusading legacy of the Reconquista and encouragement from the Papacy in the form of favourable Papal Bulls. Tackling the background economic context, and finally, considering technological advances throughout the period, most significantly gunpowder and ship design. All these factors played important roles in the establishment of the distinct empires, but each area was influenced by them to varying degrees at different stages. The desire for economic gain dominated the establishment and

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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A Commentary on the Laws of King Alfred, 871-901 A.D.

A Commentary on the Laws of King Alfred, 871-901 A.D. The law-codes of King Alfred have proved too many scholars very difficult to date. However, all argue it was late in his reign, perhaps in between the 880s and 890s that they were issued.1 They survive in the form of two manuscripts; one from the mid-tenth century Manuscript 173 (also known as the 'A' Manuscript) at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge and one from the twelfth-century, the Textus Roffensis.2 The 'A' Manuscript was written by two mid tenth century scribes and originally followed the annals for 920 but now follows the final annals of 1070 of the continued chronicle.3 The Textus Roffensis is a manuscript compiled in the time of Ernhelf, the bishop of Rochester [1115-24] and it is at Rochester Cathedral that the manuscript is still preserved.4 Portions of the law-codes survive incomplete elsewhere as well.5 It seems that it is no accident that we still have Alfred's law-codes. Just as he had used others, particularly King Ine of Wessex6, future kings would go on to use Alfred.7 What makes the law-codes so important is that there is a dearth of contemporary charters of the reigns of Alfred and Edward the Elder, his son.8 The law-codes themselves whilst able to tell us about attitudes towards certain crimes in society, such as theft, murder or treason, as well as ideas regarding religion such as Chapter 43 of the

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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What impact did the Scandinavian settlement have on pre-Conquest society and economy in England?

What impact did the Scandinavian settlement have on pre-Conquest society and economy in England? There is no doubt that the Scandinavian settlement of England had a massive effect on pre-Conquest society and the economy in England. The Scandinavians were a minority invasion force, there was always go to remain a vast majority of Anglo-Saxons remaining in the country, even so the Scandinavians did change society and the economy. In fact without the Scandinavian invasion and subsequent settlement, then it is possible that they would not have been an 'England' so to speak of by 1066 and the Norman invasion. In fact there might not even have been an invasion at all. It was the consequences of the Scandinavian settlement which would lead to the rise of England and then with the problems during the mid-eleventh century regarding the succession of the crown led to the Conquest. It was the invasion and settlement of the 'Vikings' within Mercia, Northumbria and East Anglia that had led to Wessex under King Alfred and his descendents to expand and take back the settled land and make the entity we now know as England. Wessex was the figure-head of an 'all-English unity'.1 The Scandinavian settlement was not just a single event. There was continuous trade and a constant influx of people, mainly mercenary troops, from Scandinavia.2 The 'Vikings' seriously affected the economy in both

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  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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The Roses of Eyam.

The Roses of Eyam The Bedlam is a mentally retarded man who is around the age of 20. He dresses in rags and old thrown- out clothes and wears a silver bell around his neck. He is tall and skinny and walks with a limp, dragging his leg behind him. Whilst he is in many ways mysterious in his ability to foretell the plague, he is also a slightly comic figure who is used to bring humour to the early part of the play. When we first meet the Bedlam, he comes to talk to Sir George Saville and William Mompesson. Mompesson is the newly appointed rector of the village of Eyam. The Bedlam asks for a penny from the men; he claims he doesn't buy anything with the money - he just throws them into the stream to see them shimmer as they move in the water. This suggests to the reader that the Bedlam is not a conventional man. He does not value the things others do and, in this case, money is of no importance to him. His whole life is unconnected with material things. In Act 1 on page 7 we see the Bedlam talking to Mompesson and Catherine who is Mompesson's wife. The Bedlam calls Catherine 'Rose'. This is ironic because whilst this seems almost a compliment, comparing her to a flower, I think he is predicting that Catherine is going to die as he also says, 'all roses must be pruned at the end of summer.' He also calls Mompesson, 'Blackman' - this is because black is the colour of

  • Word count: 1146
  • Level: University Degree
  • Subject: Historical and Philosophical studies
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