Heat of Neutralization
Introduction The study of energy is an important component chemists use to study chemistry. Most of the energy used in society comes from chemical reactions, which include the combustion of fossil fuels. Another example of the practical uses of this theory is when gasoline is combusted in a car engine, the engine block becomes hot and the car's pistons move (Brain, 2007). This example demonstrates two ways heat can be transferred, which are through heat(temperature change) or work. Since a significant amount of work is not produced in chemical reactions, most of the energy comes in the form of heat (Jones, 2007). This component of chemistry is known as thermochemistry (Jones, 2007). During a chemical reaction, chemical bonds are created and destroyed, which means energy can be either released or absorbed. With constant pressure, the change in energy of a reaction is known as the heat of reaction or enthalpy change (?H) (Jones, 2007). In order to determine the amount of energy release or absorbed, chemists carry out the reactions inside a container, known as a calorimeter, that helps insulates the reaction from its surrounding (University of Florida, 2007). Therefore, all of the enthalpy change of a reaction is confined to the container, raising or lowering the temperature of its contents (University of Florida, 2007). This, in short, is the basis of calorimetry. However, for
Photochemical smog's comprise of primary and secondary pollutants.
Open book: 2003 Photochemical smog's comprise of primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are released directly into the atmosphere, through combustion of fuels in car engines and power stations. The main primary pollutants produced because of motor vehicle combustion are; Nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and various hydrocarbons. Secondary pollutants are produced by a further chemical reactions taking place with primary pollutants. Secondary pollutants comprise of O3, NO2, H2O2, HNO3, partially oxidised VOC's and PAN peroxyacetyl nitrate. (Illustrated below in figure 1.1) Formation of the ozone (secondary pollutant) summarised in figure 1.2 Coal is a fossil fuel (made from the decomposition of living material). All living organisms contain sulphur and therefore when coal burns, the sulphur compounds are oxidised to form sulphur oxides. Organisms store nitrogen as protein and therefore it is present in the coal, therefore when coal is burnt the nitrogen compounds are oxidised to form NOx. Also because of the high temperature of combustion the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere combine to form thermal NOx. CO2 is a waste product of most combustion reactions, as the carbon in the organic material in the decomposed organisms oxidises it may partially oxidise to form carbon monoxide (summarised in figure 1.3) The best conditions for photochemical smog
An Investigation into the Concentration of Commercial Bleaches
An Investigation into the Concentration of Commercial Bleaches Abstract: An experiment into finding out the concentration of four different samples of bleach was carried out. This involved doing a titration experiment in order to found out the unknown concentrations of the bleaches and to place them in order of 'value for money'. Sample A was found to have the highest concentration of hypochlorite, so one can assume that this sample would have the highest 'value for money'. Sample B had the lowest concentration of hypochlorite and could be presumed as having the lowest 'value for money'. Introduction: Titration is a type of experiment that is used to find the concentrations of unknown solutions. An indicator is usually used to tell whether or not the solution has changed colour. Once the solution has changed colour this is known as the end point1. Once the end point has been reached, the titration is finished and from here the concentration of the unknown solution can be worked out by using the titre (cm3) gained as guidance. In this experiment, it will focus on finding out the unknown concentration of four bleach samples labelled A, B, C and D. Each of the bleach samples contains sodium hydrochlorite (NaOCl). Starch will be used as in indicator for this experiment too. Safety and Equipment: Lab coat, safety goggles and plastic gloves were worn at all times during the
Add vector symbols
Andy Somody 97300-6222 ENSC 495 Assignment 1 Add vector symbols ). By definition, a normal vector to a plane is any vector which begins at a point on the plane and has a direction that is perpendicular (or orthogonal) to the surface of the plane. Both the (100) and (111) planes are defined in terms of their normal vectors. The (100) plane has a normal vector of [100], while the (111) plane has a normal vector of [111]. The angle that the sides of the pyramid shaped pit make with respect to the starting wafer surface can be represented as the angle between the (100) and (111) planes. The intersection between the (100) and (111) planes is displayed in the following diagram. Therefore, the angle between the (100) and (111) planes can be resolved by determining the angle between the [100] and [111] normal vectors. By the dot product property of linear algebra, we know that the dot product of two vectors A and B can be represented by the following equation: where |a| is the magnitude of vector A, |b| is the magnitude of vector B, and ? is the angle between the vectors A and B. We can also represent the three dimensional components of vectors A and B in the following manner: where x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, and z2 are scalar numbers that can take on any value. The magnitudes of the vectors A and B can be represented in the following manner: By the dot product property of linear
Perform a preliminary design evaluation for a plant to produce 30,000 te/yr of Maleic Anhydride (MA), C4H2O3, from a liquid feedstock containing 95% n-butane.
CET PART IIA EXERCISE 6 Process Synthesis 25th February 2003 Introduction The objective of the exercise is to perform a preliminary design evaluation for a plant to produce 30,000 te/yr of Maleic Anhydride (MA), C4H2O3, from a liquid feedstock containing 95% n-butane. The remaining 5% of the feed is iso-butane, which is taken to form carbon dioxide instantaneously under the reactor conditions. The reactor must be kept above 100 ºC everywhere to prevent condensation on the catalyst. The reactor operates around 400 ºC and 2.5 bara. Reaction Scheme The following reactions will take place in the reactor: C4H10 + 3.5O2 ? C4H2O3 + 4H2O C4H10 + 6.5O2 ? 4CO2 + 5H2O The selectivity of generating Maleic Anhydride, is given by S = 0.70 - 0.3X2 [1] where X is the conversion of n-butane Figure 1 below shows the distribution of products. Figure 1: Diagram showing distribution of products Using the information in Figure 1, the required flowrate of n-butane in the feed can be found, together with the compositions and flowrates of the product stream. The minimum air flowrate is defined by the fact that the concentration of n-butane in air must be below its lower explosion limit of 1.7 mol %. Basic Flowsheet The basic flowsheet to be considered is as follows: Figure 2: Basic Flowsheet Design Equation [1] shows that selectivity decreases with conversion, which
The Synthesis and Optical Resolution of Co(en)33+ isomers
The Synthesis and Optical Resolution of Co(en)33+ isomers. Kimberlee London Department of Chemistry, Saint John's University, Jamaica, NY Dr. Rosso Lab Date: March 1 and March 8, 2011 Report Due: March 22, 2011. Abstract: The tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt ion is an optically active compound. The enantiomers can be separated and disguised from each. This is done first through the synthesis of [(+)-Co(en)3[(+)-tart]Cl and then the debased from this complex. The separation results with [(+)Co(en)3]I3 and (-)-Co(en)3]I3. The two are disguised from each other by using a polarimeter and obtaining the optical angle of rotation. From this further calculations are done to further identify and determine if the enantiomers were separated and isolated synthetically. The results found that the isomers were separated and a great deal was recovered according to the theoretical yield that was calculated. It was also proven that the complex can be racemized by boiling and the presence of an activated carbon. Introduction: The purpose of this experiment is to synthesis and learn about Co(en)33+ optical isomers. The tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt ion is an optically active compound. Werner in 1912 was the first to do the resolution of tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt ion.1 He did this through Second-order Asymmetric Induction. Second-order Asymmetric Induction is when one of the
TEST FOR QUININE
INTRODUCTION Toxicology is the study of harmful effect of drugs and poisons on living things. Forensic toxicology is the scientific study of poison in relations to law in criminal and civil cases; mostly used in criminal justice system cases. The role of Forensic toxicologist is to identify, quantify and confirm the presence of drugs in relevant case materials, i.e. they study the relationship between dose and its effect. A toxicologist is also responsible for the interpretation of drug levels and presenting their opinion court. (Siegel 2007, pg 409) Toxicity is the ability of a chemical to cause a deleterious effect when an organism is exposed to it. It is the degree to which a substance is poisonous. Poisonous refer to any substance that can cause injury or have fatal effect when introduced into, or taken up by a living organism. (Hodgson et al, 1998. pg 469) The severity of toxicity produced by a chemical is directly proportional to the exposure of concentration and the time of exposure. Toxicity can either be acute or chronic. Acute toxicity is the adverse effects occurring within a relatively short time interval after toxicant exposure (i.e. as short as a few minutes to as long as several days), usually caused by single exposure to the toxicant. In the past, the LD50 or LC50 test was used to test acute toxicity. LD50 (median lethal dose) is the quantity of chemical
Determination of pka of the given drug sample. The importance of pKa is that one can easily conclude how much drug is ionized and unionized. Unionized drug is better absorbed
Determination of pka of the given drug sample INTRODUCTION: Dissociation constant of a drug/compound is commonly refered to as pKa. It is a characteristic of drug. It is the estimation of ionized and unionized drug concentration at a particular pH. It is the pH at which 50% of drug is ionized and 50% is unionized. The dissociation constants of both acidic and basic drugs are expressed by pKa values. The importance of pKa is that one can easily conclude how much drug is ionized and unionized. Unionized drug is better absorbed. pKa can be calculated by following equation. pKa = pH +log(di -d/ d- dm) Where, di = absorbance of the ionized species. d = absorbance of solution tested. dm = absorbance of the unionized species. U.V. spectroscopy is widely used in pKa determination as we know lambda max is different for ionized and unionized drug or we can say that there is great difference between absorbance of ionized and unionized drug at a particular lambda. MATERIALS & METHODS: Materials: Apparatus: 10 ml volumetric flasks, beaker, pipette (10 ml),spatula. Chemicals: 0.2 M Sodium hydroxide, 0.2 boric acid, 0.2 M potassium hydrogen phthalate, 0.2 M hydrochloric acid, 0.2 M potassium chloride, distilled water, test drug. Instruments: Weighing Balance, JASCO UV-Visible Spectrophotometer, pH meter. Preparation of buffers: Following buffers were prepared as per IP
Optimizing a Windows-Based Computer Data Acquisition and Reduction System for the General Chemistry Laboratory
Optimizing a Windows-Based Computer Data Acquisition and Reduction System for the General Chemistry Laboratory DUE 9652855 Ed Vitz Kutztown University Brenda Egolf Evaluation Specialist Introduction There were three major products of this project: (1) The first is a new version of the LIMSport laboratory manual based on Excel, which is used in all sections of the General Chemistry course at Kutztown University, and Excel? laboratory templates necessary to support it. The original version was based on DOS/Lotus 1-2-3?. A sample chapter has been submitted as a separate file in the Activities Section of this report. (2) Second, we completed a formal assessment of the efficacy of our computer-centered LIMSport Laboratory Program at Kutztown University in an attempt to determine what level of computer prompting is optimal for first year science students. The results of that study are reported below. And Finally, (3) we found it necessary to redesign all of the software, and some of the hardware components of the LIMSport system in response to unanticipated changes by Microsoft? in the Windows? operating system. A copy of an article written for Scientific Computing and Instrumentation, which describes the project and includes acknowledgements of NSF support, is included in the Activities Section of this report. Assessment of LIMSport Curriculum Development Project
Intermolecular forces. In our experiment we want to find out how intermolecular forces are present in our samples, how they interact with each other. We will experiment the relationships between molecular structures and their physical properties: volatili
Name: Vladimir Koloskov Section: Chem 111/102 Date submitted: 09/15/2011 Team member: Jake Harding Experiment #16: Intermolecular Forces-The Relationship Between Physical Properties and Structure Introduction The forces holding molecules together are generally called intermolecular forces. The energy required to break molecules apart is much smaller than a typical bond-energy, but intermolecular forces play important roles in determining the properties of a substances. In our experiment we want to find out how intermolecular forces are present in our samples, how they interact with each other. We will experiment the relationships between molecular structures and their physical properties: volatility, viscosity and solubility. Data Part A: Relative Volatilities of Samples. A. Volatility n-decane n-heptane n-pentane third second first B. Volatility n-butanol ethanol methanol third second first C. Volatility n-butanol Deionized water n-pentane second third first B. Relative Viscosities of Materials. VISCOSITY N- Hexane Deionized water Glycerol Middle Lowest Highest C. Mutual Slubilities of Liquids water ethanol n-hexane n-butyl acetate Ethylene glycol Water - M I I M Ethanol - M M M n-hexane 2 3 - M I n-bytul acetate 4 5 6 - I Ethylene glycol 7 8 9 0 - D. Mutual Solubilities of Liquids sucrose Iodine
