home, and with their siblings (s.23.(7)) allowing “reasonable” parental contact (s.34(1)). The Act also changed parental rights to parental responsibility (s.(3)).
Although the philosophy of the Act is that the child is best brought up in their own families, at times this is not in the best interests of the child. The LA has a duty to safeguard and promote the child’s welfare (s.22(3)). The overarching principle of the Act is that the welfare of the child is paramount (s.1) regardless of race, religion or culture. Although section 22(5)[c]) of the Act it states that the local authorities must consider “the child's religious persuasion, racial origin and cultural and linguistic background”, this only applies to looked after children (Brammer 2007). Under the Race Relations (Amendment Act) 2000, LA’s have a duty to promote good race relations and equality, provide a culturally sensitive service and protect against racial discrimination.
Whilst articles 3,5,6,8 and 14 within the Human Rights Act 1998 are important to children, it is the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) that provides a comprehensive framework for children to attain their full potential. It sets out over 40 substantive rights including protection from harm and exploitation, access to education and health and family life (Every Child Matters 2007).
The government’s first attempt to transforms children’s services was the implementation of the Quality Protects initiative. Also part of a wider set of projects including ‘Sure Start’ to help children in their early years and their families get off to a better start in life. The Quality Protects programme set out eleven key objectives (DoH 1999) (appendix 1) for children’s services requiring all statutory agencies as ‘corporate parents’ to work together, ensuring that children’s social services provide targeted care for disadvantaged children to enable them to take maximum advantages of universal services, most notably health and education. It was the key mechanism for delivering the aims of the government White Paper, Modernising Social Services (DoH 1998). LA’s were required to submit a Management Action Plan informing the government on how they were going to meet the objectives. Choice Protects was a further initiative launched in 2002 to improve outcomes for looked-after children through providing better placement stability, matching and choice (Butler et al 2004)
The term ‘corporate parent’ was coined by Frank Dobson MP (then Secretary of State) in 1998 whilst announcing the launch of the Quality Protects Programme. His underlying message was that councillors should view the needs of children in public care and have ambitions for them, as though they were their own (Department for Education and Skills 2003).
Further changes in legislation followed the death of Victoria Climbié whilst in private foster care, Lord Lamings report made 108 recommendations for change (Victoria Climbié Inquiry 2003). The government’s response was a major reform of children’s services and the Children Act 2004, underpinned by the policies set out in Every Child Matters; Change for Children (Every Child Matters 2007). This focused on achieving five key outcomes for services to children, to work towards achieving their full potential. They are: being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and achieving economic well-being.
The 2004 Act also established children’s trusts, bringing together education, health and social services, as well as a children’s commissioner to promote the interests and views of children. Due to the profound importance of education, section 22(3) of the Children Act 1989 amended by section 52 of the Children Act 2004 now places a duty on local authorities to promote the educational attainment of LAC (Brammer 2007).
The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (DoH 2000b) and subsequent practice guidance was introduced as part of New Labours Quality Protects programme and replaced what was formerly the ‘orange book’. The three inter-related dimensions of the framework: Child’s Development Needs, Parenting Capacity and Family and Environmental Factors and its sub-domains (Appendix 2) present the necessary ingredients to provide a holistic, specialist assessment of need used in conjunction with the Children Act 1989, that carers, other professionals and agencies can contribute.
The domains can be adapted for the needs of disabled children and are useful for social workers in assessing placements to establish suitability in meeting the child’s holistic needs (DoH 2000b). Additionally, they can be used to evaluate progress within parenting capacities, particularly if key areas were targeted for improvement, thus determining whether the needs of the child will be sufficiently met if they are to return to their own home environment (Ibid 2000b).
The Common Assessment Framework (CAF) as proposed by Every Child Matters (2007), is a relatively new standardised approach for assessing the need for services for children and is part of a wider government programme to provide integrated services including the need to improve multi-agency working. The CAF is a common language in assessment and is based upon the five outcomes of Every Child Matters (Brammer 2007).
Every Child Matters raises questions of where LAC should be (or get to) in relation to other children. The agenda aims to improve the lives of LAC holistically across the five outcomes linking to the Articles in the UNCRC (Unicef 2006a). The objective is to improve and integrate children's services, promote early intervention, provide strong leadership, bringing together different professionals in multi-disciplinary teams in order to achieve positive outcomes for children, using a matrix of specialist, targeted and universal services built around their needs.
Fahlberg (1994) states that gaining a comprehensive assessment of the child including an in depth picture of their past history throughout their development can inform social workers and carers on how the child is likely to respond to particular situations, together with the possible triggers to specific behaviour of that individual, including the child’s view of the relationship with the parent(s). It is this kind of information, which Falhberg says is sometimes missing from case files, which could result in the child not receiving an appropriate care package or placement. However, it is important to remember that when gathering information “children’s own perspectives on their experiences are an important source of knowledge” (DoH 2000a p.8).
This accentuates the significance of sharing information between professionals in order to be able promote and meet the child’s holistic needs. Although personal information “should always be respected” (DoH 2000b p.45), there are times when the law permits the disclosure without consent in order to safeguard the child. Therefore, by explaining to the child at the outset why and how information is shared, there are no unnecessary surprises for the child.
Working Together to Safeguard Children (DfES 2006) is the third updated version since 1991, providing improved guidance on child protection procedures and the newly reformed Local Safeguarding Children’s Boards. Emphasis is placed on multi-agency working with a commitment to sharing information, police intelligence and recognising risk factors in order to safeguard and protect children from harm.
However, ethical dilemmas can arise when safeguarding children. At times it is necessary to place children in secure accommodation under section 25 of the Children Act 1989 for their own and other’s safety, and/or due to a history of absconding (Brammer 2007). Although this conflicts with Article 5 of the UNCRC; ‘Right to Liberty’ along with the potential to diminish their autonomy, this must be a last resort to safeguard their welfare when other strategies have failed
Effective care planning for LAC is key to promoting and meeting their holistic needs.
Care plans should be person-centred, needs based, focussed, proactive and written collectively with the social worker, the child (depending on age), their parent(s) and prospective carers (National Children’s Bureau 2007). However, studies undertaken by Timms & Thorburn (2006) revealed that LAC were not always involved in writing their care plan as much as they should be, and less than three quarters of their respondents who were looked after, knew what a care plan was.
The care plan is a continuing process based on a holistic assessment of the child’s needs and how they will be met, including a statutory Health Plan and Personal Education Plan (including Special Educational Needs) which sets out targets, providing a valuable individual monitoring mechanism (DfES 2005). The requirement of statutory reviews laid out in section 26 of the Children Act 1989 reinforces this continuum (Thomas 2005). The amendment to section 26 made by section 118 of the Adoption and Children Act 2002, now requires that statutory reviews must be chaired by an Independent Reviewing Officer, who ensures plans are “timely, effective and sensitive” and focussed on the child’s needs, the placement, offering a safeguard to prevent drift and addressing poor practice. (DfES 2004 p.8).
Additionally, the Looking After Children documentation contains a significant component by way of the age-related Assessment and Action records. These records are an achievable way of assessing and reviewing the child’s well being across the seven dimensions of the ‘child’s developmental needs’ located within the assessment framework (DoH 2000). Additionally, these records identify each others roles in undertaking the tasks to effectively meet the outcomes (Thomas 2005). Walker et al (2003) emphasises that these records should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Related to the assessment and have a clear Time scale for completion).
Meeting the needs black and minority ethnic children is a complex task for social workers given the controversial debates regarding same race/trans racial placements (Thomas 2005). Walker (2005 cited by Allain 2007) stresses the need for cultural competence in social workers, commenting that the;
“importance of . . . developing culturally competent practice for working with children and young people cannot be overstated.”
(p.137)
However, many children who are fostered are from black and minority ethnic groups with entirely different cultures (Thomas 2005). Although there is research to suggest that trans-racial placements are not damaging to children (Tizard and Phoenix 1989) The Children Act 1989 (Guidance and Regulations vol 3 paras 2.40-2.42 DoH 1991) promotes same race placements within foster settings. Nevertheless, social workers must be aware that;
“cultural norms and models of behaviour can vary considerably between communities and even families”
(Victoria Climbié Inquiry 2003 para.16.5)
Simply ‘ticking’ the box of section 22(5)[c]) of the Children Act 1989 does not go far enough in addressing diverse needs. Research has shown that some black and EMC suffer considerable socio-economic disadvantage, are vulnerable to hereditary diseases and more likely to have mental health issues (DoH 2002a) to name a few concerns.
Assessments are not value free; social workers bring their racial, cultural, gender, class and religious values to the assessment (City of Salford Community and Social Services 2000). Clear guides to good professional practice are maintained within the GSCC codes of practice. Anti-oppressive practice and valuing diversity in its broadest context are at the heart of social work together with a commitment to partnership working, being non-judgemental, trustworthy and respecting service users rights (GSCC 2002).
Dominelli (1997) also states that in their quest to treat everyone as equals, social workers have inadvertently adopted a ‘colour blind approach’ implying that skin colour is the only difference, thus reinforcing negative assumptions. In addition, she notes social workers have ‘dumped’ black ‘difficult’ children on to black foster carers highlighting racist assumptions that they ‘can look after their own’.
According to Cross (1971 cited by DoH 2000a) black children struggle to gain a positive sense of racial identity. Therefore, in order for child care professional to assess and understand, Cross provides a ‘model of identity’ (Appendix 3) that can be used to make the correlation between the child’s own perception and their emotional development.
Unaccompanied asylum seeking children are not only faced with language and cultural issues, but it appears that the Hillingdon Judgment and its subsequent guidance (LAC (2003)13) DoH 2003) is not being adhered to nationally (Nandy 2005). Children aged 16-17 are still being supported by section 17 of the Children Act 1989 (children in need) rather than having full section 20 status as per the recommendations, providing them with ongoing support post-18.
The Children (Leaving Care) Act 2000 provides for, a holistic Pathway Assessment of needs, which informs the Pathway Plan for a continuum of care and support until the age of 21(beyond if in education) with a personal adviser. Section 24 of the Children Act 1989 sets out the duty of the LA to advise, assist and befriend a child who leaves care after the age of 16. However, research indicates that although LAC are the most vulnerable in society, they are pushed to independence earlier than other children. Stein (2006 p.274) describes care leavers as having “accelerated and compressed transitions to adulthood.” Most leaving with no educational qualifications.
Educational attainment for LAC is unacceptably low, with only 12 per cent achieving 5 GCSE’s grades A-C compared to 59 per cent of other children (DfES 2007). Research by Berridge et al (1998 cited by DoH 1998a) indicates that LAC, particularly those in residential care are ill-equipped with adequate learning materials and staff felt that they were not sufficiently trained to provide teaching support to those who were excluded from school (DfES 2005). Guidance from the DfES (2005) aims to promote better partnership working including teacher training and additional support for LAC in schools.
Fundamental to the Children Act 1989 is that the children have a right to be heard and are individuals in their own right. The child’s wishes and feelings must be sought by the LA with regards to aspects of their circumstances and future plans (s.22(5)) and s.1(3) when courts are making decisions. This principle is enshrined in the Article 12 of the UNCRC (Unicef 2006). However, Thomas (2005) notes that there is still a debate to what extent children have in determining their lives, although the general consensus is that they should be listened to. Leeson (2007) also states that children’s participation in decision making is questioned due to them being regarded as “vulnerable, less competent beings in need of social work protection” (p.268). Although children may not know what they want, they should be encouraged by all professionals to participate, (according to their age and understanding) thus empowering them and increasing their autonomy.
Communication with children is the means to establishing a relationship, even when they do not want to engage verbally. Play, activity based work, writing, drawing and body language are also essential tools in the art of being receptive (Kroll 1995 cited by Thomas 2002). Disabled children may prefer other methods of communication such as the Picture Exchange Communication System, Makaton or British Sign Language. Additionally, they may have their own individual ways of communicating, therefore it is crucial that not only the child care professionals understand, but the child has confidence that their messages are heard (Every Child Matters 2006).
Foster carers and residential workers have a similar role. They work closely with social workers, families, doctors, psychologists, teachers, nurses, probation officers and other outside agencies in order to effectively promote the holistic needs of the child. Although it is the responsibility of the social worker to ensure that plans are implemented, reviewed and legalities adhered to, residential staff and foster carers are principally the ones to undertake the tasks (Thomas 2005).
Studies by Whitaker et al (1998 cited by DoH 1998a,) highlighted the extensive skills and personal qualities that are required when working within group living, including knowledge and understanding of development, group dynamics, networks, listening, advocating, physical and emotional support. This list is not exhaustive and not exclusive to residential, on the contrary, foster carers should equally be proficient in these skills.
Due to the challenging nature of the profession there is a high turnover of staff within residential care which amounts to children not being able to form adequate attachments, although key worker systems are used to enhance this. Colton et al (2007) analysed a number of factors from researchers and concluded that one of the key issues was emotional exhaustion from increasingly complex, volatile, chaotic and disruptive behaviour displayed by children towards staff. According to Fostering Network (2007) foster care turnover also remains high with a shortage of over ten thousand foster carer placements.
According to Barter et al (2004) many children entering the care system are filling an available vacancy rather than receiving an appropriate provision to meet their complex needs. Furthermore, Triseliotis (2002) notes that children are far more likely to be in continual state of insecurity due to the legalities of impermanence and many felt that this anxiety was heightened from the carers behave ‘or else’ stance. Although research has indicated that ‘authoritative’ parenting within fostering has had the most success (Wilson et al 2004). The use of Social Learning Theory, particularly in the newly funded Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care Project in England, considers that since behaviour is learned, it can be unlearned via therapeutic methods and living environment. MTFCE is targeted for those with complex needs, challenging behaviour and offenders (Every Child Matters 2007).
Under section 26 of the Children Act 1989, children have a statutory right to complain about the services they receive. Amendments to the Children Act 1989 via the Adoption and Children Act 2002 (s.119) created a new section (26(a)) which affords children and young people a statutory right to an advocate in the light of complaints (Brammer 2007). In addition, the White Paper Valuing People (DoH 2001) emphasises that children who have learning disabilities should also be included in such initiatives. Furthermore, Ward (1995) notes that the LA’s should be playing a more active role and taking the initiative to seek the views of LAC, as some of those looked after, are there “under duress” (p.16)
To ensure children are looked after properly, residential homes and fostering agencies are inspected by an independent body. As of April 2007, Ofsted began the regulation and inspection of children’s services building on the previous expertise of Commission for Social Care Inspection (Ofsted 2007). Residential homes are subject two annual visits (one announced and one unannounced) from the inspecting body to monitor performance against both the National Minimum Standards (DoH 2002) and the Children’s Homes Regulations 2001.Internal inspections are required by the registered manager to monitor matters set out in Schedule 6 of the regulations (34(1)) such as, menu’s, the quality of rotas, staffing and children’s complaints. Under regulation 33, a monthly inspection takes place by a statutory visitor to monitor performance against the five outcomes of Every Child Matters. Including speaking to the children and staff, checking files, care plans and placement plans. A report is then prepared and forwarded to Ofsted.
Many children have a troubled and complex past (Thomas 2005). A good home offers attachments, permanence, identity, self esteem and promotes contact (where necessary) with the child and parent(s). Attachment theory originiates from the work of John Bowlby and has been elaborated considerably since. Attachment behaviour is reciprocal rather than unidirectional and is defined by Schaffer (1997 p.127) as a “long enduring emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual.”
Bowlby theorised that lack of nurturing from an infants primary care giver would have serious consequences for the child in later life, leading to ‘affectionless psychopathy’ (the inability to have deep feelings for others) (Rutter 1991). Social workers need to consider how a placement will promote healthy attachments and psychological development, furthermore, how they are provided, maintained and strengthened (Howe 1996, cited by Thomas 2005). However, Robinson (2002) criticises Howe for failing to mention the attachments within the black community and families in his writings, merely referring to ‘cultural variations’.
Research identified four attachment behaviours; secure, insecure/avoidant ambivalent and disorganised, secure being the most ideal (Howe 2002). A good understanding of these internalised behaviours assists social workers to differentiate between them when analysing assessments (Ibid 2002). Howe further notes that there is a tendency for these ‘internal working models’ to become self fulfilling, where by the child acts in certain ways to elicit desired self-confirming reactions from others. However, research indicates that a child does not have to be “at the mercy of the past” (Schaffer 1992 p.40) depending on how resilient the child is to adapting to life’s complex variables.
The prevalence of mental disorders is high in LAC, particularly in residential care compared to fostering. According to the Office of National Statistics (2003) nearly three quarters of the children in residential care (72 per cent) were clinically diagnosed as having a mental disorder. The role of the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services promotes the mental well being of children through commissioning services via a four-tier strategic framework (level four being severe) following an assessment (Every Child Matters 2007).
Most LAC receive services at level three or four. However, Schaffer (1998) suggests that it is difficult to tell who will need therapeutic involvement and who will simply grow out of it. Leighton (In press) states that professionals must be aware of their own personal values and attitudes that could influence decision making as to whether a child will benefit from therapy. Furthermore, she adds that ethical challenges are plentiful in creating and respecting the child’s autonomy whilst undertaking a balancing act with safeguarding their welfare and promoting their best interests.
Thomas (2005, 2002) urges caution with the overall concept of ‘best interests of the child’ as he suggests that it could be oppressive and dangerous if misused, particularly with regards to who is making the decisions in the ‘best interests’ for example; professionals, the family or the child themselves. Although there is good evidence from research to indicate positive outcomes for children, these cannot assume a one size fits all solution to ensuring a desired individual result for there are other intricacies that need to be taken into account, for example religion and culture.
With regards to child welfare, Fox-Harding (1997) states that the Children Act 1989 is in ideological conflict concerning the role of the state. She notes four different value positions; ‘liassaz-faire’, ‘state paternalism’, ‘parent’s rights’ and ‘children’s rights’. The latter two are appropriate here. Firstly, she notes that the perspective of ‘parent’s rights’ acts as a belief that the state should positively intervene to adequately provide family support and assistance to enable the child to be brought up in the home. This includes providing accommodation on a voluntary basis for children as a last resort, with significant emphasis on maintaining parental contact and returning home (where possible).
Secondly, the perspective of ‘children’s rights’ is argued that given the amount of weight towards promoting children’s rights, this can be called into question as decisions are made about them. She also adds that this perspective advocates that children should to have similar rights to adults in choices and decision making. Therefore being freed from adult oppression would lead to better treatment of children. However, as Thomas (2005) and Leeson (2007) argued earlier, despite good intentions from adults in decision making, there is without a doubt conflict of interests.
Statistics issued by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (2007a) show that at 31 March 2007, 60,000 children were looked after in England, with 42,300 (71 per cent) placed in foster care and 6,500 (11 per cent) placed in residential homes (including secure units and hostels). Sergeant (2006) noted in the previous year that out of the 6000 children who will emerge from care, 4500 will have no qualifications. Furthermore, within two years, 3000 will be unemployed, while 2100 with be pregnant or parents, 1200 will be homeless and only 60 will go to university.
Outcomes for LAC have improved, but not at the pace the government had expected, and are still considered to be unacceptable. Further radical proposals to transform the lives of LAC are by way of a third piece of legislation; the Children and Young Persons Bill 2007, underpinned by the commitment of the White Paper, Care Matters: Time for Change (DfCSF 2007). Key benefits include, placement stability to reduce multiple placements, prioritising the education admission process and ensuring that children are not being set up to fail by forcing them into leaving care before they are ready.
To conclude, child care professionals do well to promote the holistic needs of LAC within the legislative framework given their extensive roles and responsibilities and commitments to not just one, but to several children. However, given the extensive succession of legislation, policies and initiatives, meeting their needs appears to be an arduous task. The governments expectations of LAC in relation to other children is in danger of being completely unrealistic if the resources are not available not meet their needs, and although multi-agency working is echoed throughout policy agendas, without collaboration, there is a danger of children being overlooked within the system.
Word Count 5440
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