What did nationalism mean to the revolutionaries in Italian and German lands in 1848?
By 1871, Europe was remapped with the rise of two newly united nations – the German Empire and the Kingdom of Italy. The movements of both countries for this unification took place at roughly the same time, in the mid 19th century and were motivated by the same historical trends: the liberalism and the nationalism.
Before 1815, both Germany and Italy shared the same similarities. Italy was divided in a number of separate states, each ruled by despotic kings. But Italy shared a common language, and a common history- the Roman Empire.
Germany was much more divided than Italy, with more than three hundred independent states, which didn’t have any kind of common government, language or even historic unity.
With Napoleon and the French Revolution, both countries were affected. Italy was influenced by the career of Napoleon with his “Italian campaign”. Firstly, Napoleon and his armies were seen by Italians as liberators who taught them liberalism and nationalism because of the reforms that Napoleon instituted in Italy, as well as the creation of the Italian United Kingdom. But the reality was showed when Napoleon became more and more dictator, which led to the opposition and rebellion by the Italian people towards the Napoleonic dominance.
In Germany, like in Italy, Napoleon and the French Revolution gave the impetus to nationalism and liberal forces. Napoleon reduced the number of German states to thirty nine, and grouped them into a Confederation of the Rhine. On the other hand, Austria and Prussia were defeated by Napoleon in several battles. The harsh treatment developed a strong patriotic feeling among Germans. Prussia modernised her army and government just to fight back Napoleon, which was successfully carried out in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, where Prussia led some German states to defeat Napoleon.
So, with Napoleon and the French Revolution the sentiments of liberalism and nationalism in Italy and Germany were much aroused.
When Napoleon was defeated and exiled, representatives of the European countries met at the Congress of Vienna in order to settle European affairs. They divided Italy into petty states with legitimated rulers again. Italy was then described as a merely geographical expression without a confederation of states, to give a sense of political unity. Austria made things worse. This foreign country exerted a strong influence in all Italian states, in exception of Piedmont-Sardinia.
In Germany, the Congress of Vienna restored the absolute governments in all states. A German Confederation of thirty-nine states was created to preserve the feeling of German unity. But the Confederation and its Diet were powerless, and with Austria having the presidency of the Diet, had a big influent the German affairs.
Liberals and patriots of Germany and Italy became frustrated with this turning. Therefore they sought various means to seek liberty and unity. The following decades, small revolts were transformed into great revolutions by 1848.
After 1815, Sardinia, the central of Duchies and the Papal States in Italy were strongly influenced by Austria. Mettemich tried to suppress liberal and nationalists aspirations in Italy, being successful until 1848. In the meantime, three schools of thought emerged on how to achieve Italian unification. With the development of these events the monarchist idea in Piedmont-Sardinia became the main stream. She had the will and the strength to lead in the Italian unification movement, and so it became the rallying point of Italian nationalists.
Austria was as well the main obstacle to unification in Germany. This country contended with Prussia the leadership of the Confederation after 1815. As nationalism movement, more and more Germans lost hope in Austria and turned to Prussia for leadership in the unification movement.
Prussia rose in the Confederation, because of the Zollverein’s success. This Costume Union was made by Prussia and contributed in making Prussia the most economically progressive state in Germany, this economic union was one of the keys for the later political unity in Germany.
In Italy, Piedmont-Sardinia implemented some economic reforms that made the most state economically advanced. This, developed and increased the bad relationship with (the presence of) Austria in Italy.
In 1848, revolts break out in every states of the Italian peninsula, with just one objective, liberty and unity. Piedmont-Sardinia also declared war on Austria because of her occupation in Italy.
The revolts (lead by secret or political revolutionary societies- Carbonari) were being successful in the beginning, but the revolutionary movement failed when the revolts were suppressed by despotic rulers, and that led to the defeat by Austria. Despite the defeat of Piedmont, her prestige increased among Italian nationalist and liberals.
In Germany, the revolution had also a great impact. Austria and Prussia were shocked by the revolts in their capital cities. Concessions were also granted to the revolutionaries, like the resignation of Metternich, the creation of liberal governments. German nationalists assembled in Frankfurt to seek German unification through constitutions. The debates on basic principles such as Greater or Lesser Germany, and their lack of power, led to the failure by 1850.
So, the 1848 revolutions failed to bring liberty or unity to Germany, or to Italy. Just in Prussia the king granted a constitution.
Some decades after 1848, Italy and Germany were heading towards unification, with the guidance of capable leaders.
In 1852, Cavour became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, and brought the unification to Italy with the realm of diplomacy.
In Prussia, Bismarck became Minister-President; he was a strong leader, and anti-democratic.
For the unifications of Italy and Germany, Cavour and Bismarck used diplomacy and war. Cavour took advantages of the nationalism to complete Italian unification in the Austro-Piedmontese war.
For the Italian unification, the leadership of Piedmont and Cavour and the French and Prussian military role were crucial. But forces from the peasants were important too, especially nationalists and liberalists. In Germany, on the other way, the “unification from above” was the most important pattern for unification, which Prussia help to achieve by her army, Junker class and Bismarck.
Conclusion
The Revolutions were a vital part for the long term success of the liberalism in Europe, which can be seen in the constitutional government, and wide male suffrage (elections). They were as well a good example of nationalism, because Germans in Germany and Italians in Italy just united themselves, and brought themselves the “patriotic cause” to achieve the liberalism that they all desired. Just for one objective, the liberalism, people united themselves in a revolution, where the nationalism and patriotism in the revolutions were the “voices” to achieve the big cause.
Bibliography
- H.Hearder: Italy in the Age of Risorgimento 1790-1870
- L.O'Boyle: The Democratic Left In Germany 1848
- R.Price: Revolutionary Movements in 19th Century Europe
- H.Pogge von Strandmann: 1848-9 A European Revolution (from The Revolutions in Europe)
Work Made By Mónica Vanessa de Magalhães Pereira
For History
“Conflict and Identity from 1789 to the Present”
European Studies 1st Year
November 2005
2005/2006
