Discuss how information processing varies between individual, racket and team activities.

AS and A Level Physical Education (Sport & Coaching)

Oliver Wells

The information processing system is the system used for skill selection. In simple terms, this is selecting the right skill for the situation in hand with as little delay as possible to give a most effective outcome, which entails the use of the senses to evaluate a situation and make a decision. This is also known as the DCR process. (We Detect information, Compare it with previous experiences and then React). All sports involve the DCR process, and also the use of perceptual skills, (a learning process), which is vital in selecting the correct skill for the situation. A simple version of the information processing model can be seen below:

In 1968, Welford created a more complex model of analysis of information processing, suggesting that we take in info and temporarily store all of these inputs prior to sorting them out. The inputs relevant to the decision are then sorted in the short term memory. The decision is then made with reference to long term memory to see how to perform a selected skill and action and results are stored for future reference, like a cycle.

Welford’s model of information processing.

Information processing differs between individual, team and racket activities, in the sense that each respected activity requires different perceptual skills to be successful. There are three ways in which information is taken in through senses prior to decision. The more stimuli there is in a situation, the more alternative responses, so the reaction time will be slower. This is known as Hick’s law. The simplest and most effective way is vision (through the eyes). Vision is more effective if the stimuli are bright. If the stimuli are dull, this may have a negative effect on performance. In team games, vision is therefore extremely important to success. An example could be when Manchester United wore grey shirts, this influenced the decision process; they claimed that they found it difficult to identify team mates. However in individual/racket games this would not be a problem, as there are usually no team members needed, so the brightness of the stimulus is irrelevant.

Audition is another sensory input which involves hearing through the ears. An example could be a team mate calling for a ball, or the sound of a ball striking a bat. The stronger (louder) the stimulus, the more quickly we react to it. Team mates must be heard in order to give options to the active performer so he can make a decision on what to do, therefore once again team games are most important for audition.

The third and most complex sensory input is proprioception. Body parts act as carriers/receivers of information. Equilibrium is the awareness of ...

This is a preview of the whole essay

The third and most complex sensory input is proprioception. Body parts act as carriers/receivers of information. Equilibrium is the awareness of balance, e.g. when you are being tackled in rugby, one can feel their body overbalancing, and need of adjusting. An example of awareness of body positioning would be the thought of the point in time when one needs to land on feet in a summersault in trampolining. Awareness of body positioning and balance are essential in most activities requiring co-ordination, balance and agility, which covers all three types of activities.

Kinaethesis is a vital element of proprioception; it is the feeling of movement, and is known as ‘muscle memory.’ An example could be the drawback of a golf club in a swing; it may be too far ‘inside the line’ and therefore the golfer has to adjust the stroke accordingly. This would be least important for individual activities such as running and swimming, as the muscle movements involved are very simple and do not require a lot of ‘muscle memory.’

Tactile sense is another element of proprioception. It is the feeling of pressure and sense of touch to tell if we are controlling/touching an object. This is most useful in racket activities, an example could be a drop shot in badminton; we use our tactile sense to control the delicate touch of the shot, for the best outcome possible e.g. to win the point. It is also important in team games, e.g. having good control of a football, however tactile sense needs to be more complex to pay off in racket activities, as you cannot rely on anyone other than yourself.

The perception stage of the information processing system is vital. This is where the relevant and irrelevant sensory inputs are sorted out; those that are required for decision making are transferred to the short term memory, and those not needed are discarded. This process is known as selective attention. This process is required for inputs to be successful as the brain can only hold 7-10 pieces of information at one time because we have a ‘channel capacity.’ For this reason we discard irrelevant inputs e.g. discarding a whistle on another court, or aeroplane overhead. Individual activities such as rowing and running involve less sensory inputs in the perception stage, so the performer’s information processing phase lasts for less time than the other activities.

Long term memory is kept in the performer’s brain for a lifetime. This is helpful as skills previously learnt can be used effectively in future game situations. All three activities acquire information into the long term memory, but more so in racket and team activities as these activities require more thought processes as the opportunity to produce skills are different every time.

The decision process takes place by comparing the current situation (short-term memory) with previous experiences (long-term memory) to compare with the current situation, and the deciding which is the best action to perform. The decision depends on the success/failure of previous actions, experience, personality, etc. For team activities, the outcome of the decision may be more conserved/a safer option than racket or individual activities, because you have the responsibility of letting the team down, whereas in racket or individual activities, this isn’t a problem as the performance can only be affected by oneself.

The motor output is the performance of the action selected (with regards to the movement pattern in the long-term memory). Once it has been performed, the situation and the result are stored for future reference. Any feedback, in terms of results and performance, is stored for future reference. The whole process then starts again. There would be different sorts of immediate feedback for these motor outputs, according to the type of activity involved. Team activity usually consists of extrinsic feedback – i.e. team mates either congratulating or criticising (constructively or unconstructively) on your output, leaving less time for thought for intrinsic feedback. However, individual and racket activities will consist of mainly intrinsic feedback (your personal thoughts on performance). This could be an advantage or a disadvantage depending on the situation. However, these activities are similar in the way that after the game has finished, usually all performers will get extrinsic feedback from their coaches/managers.

Processing models can also be used to create time and space. The Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) for example shows how a ‘dummy’ works to create time. The PRP is the result of the information processing system being a single channel mechanism, so only one decision can take place at a time.

The Psychological refractory Period (PRP)

‘Stimulus 1’ could represent a football player seeing a team player moving to his left. The defender will begin to make a decision about what to do. If, during this decision it becomes clear that this is a dummy, and the player is moving to the right, this new information cannot be processed until the first decision has been completed. Thus there is a delay in the second decision, during which time the player has dribbled past the defender. The double arrow represents the delay involved. To make the best use of the PRP in sport, the second stimulus must be timed correctly, if they are too late, the first process will be near to completion and the delay will be short. If the second stimulus follows too quickly, the defender can ignore the first set and simply pick up on the second. The PRP would be used in most team games at a high level, and very few racket activities, however in individual activities this would not work as there is only one stimulus.

In conclusion, information processing is similar in all three activities in that they all require basic sensory inputs such as vision and audition, and all need selective attention of inputs to become successful. There are also some noticeable differences between the three. For example, the inputs vary in importance in correlation to the type of activities, e.g. the tactile sense is essential in playing effective shots in badminton, (racket activities) whereas in individual activities, require little tactile sense, e.g. running. Team activities involve most sensory inputs, and the perception stage is the most complex due to this. Team games also involve the Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) which is used in team games and very rarely, racket games.

Page of