Strangers Within - Foundations of Microsociology
Strangers Strangers Within Simmel: "People who are close by, yet somehow remote", e.g. mobile traders are not bound by roots. Schuetz: "People without graves or reminiscences". People who come from other places - and stay. Fortes: Two ways of incorporating outsiders - kinship or law. * Kinship = connection via a common origin, or via processes of exchange over time (including feeding). * Law = connection via legal process. Central to modern notions of citizenship Strangerhood implies both spatial and temporal dislocation. Strangers inspire fear and curiosity. Briggs, lived with the Utku, Eskimo people of N. Canada: "I was first a stranger and curiosity, then a recalcitrant child and finally a confirmed irritant". Shuetz notes that strangers have: * a more critical eye on local practice * different kinds of habitual thinking * double (doubtful) loyalty Strangers are also closely observed. Fortes working in West Africa distinguished three possible kinds of relationship that could be formed with strangers: (i) no-relationship - strangers as aliens/spirits, harmful, should be avoided (ii) relationships of enmity - strangers who are not fully human - need to be subdued, can be drawn into relationships of slavery (iii) strangers who can be drawn into semi-kinship relations - potential affines. Akan notions of strangerhood - defined by politics and
Corruption is the grease that lubricates the squeaky gate
'Corruption is the grease that lubricates the squeaky gate'. Discuss the extent to which corruption hinders or promotes development. Corruption is said to be one of the 'oldest part-time professions' in our history. There are many advantages to allowing corruption to take place in the Least Developed Countries (LDC's) as the shortage of public services means that it is, in some places, the only way to secure basic amenities. However, the idea that corruption is a good and moral thing to allow to happen can't be tolerated in a western developed society, and cases which arise are met with fierce resistance, because it is seen to lead to waste & inefficiency, external industrial stimulation and focus on large projects which do not benefit the community as a whole and do not promote development. The first reason that corruption is seen to promote development is that in the 50 LDC countries it allows the people within those countries to gain access to basic healthcare, policing and education which people take for granted in western societies. For example in Kenya, there is an 86.1% chance of having to bribe the judiciary to hear your case sympathetically and an 85.5% chance you will have to bribe the police to take action.1 This continues in the education (52.9%) and health (37.3) sectors, although the intensity of the bribes reduced, this is because there is little
Account for the development of totalitarianism under Stalin between 1928 and 1945 By 1928, Stalin had become the undisputed successor to Lenin, and leader of the CPSU. Stalin's
Account for the development of totalitarianism under Stalin between 1928 and 1945 By 1928, Stalin had become the undisputed successor to Lenin, and leader of the CPSU. Stalin's power of appointment had filled the aisles of the Party Congress and Politburo with Stalinist supporters. Political discussion slowly faded away from the Party, and this led to the development of the totalitarian state of the USSR. Stalin, through the Party and bureaucracy was able to extend his personal authority and the Party's control over the people. The cult of personality was a bizarre semi religious institution that emerged following Stalin's assumption of power. Stalin helped further the cult of personality by institutionalising art and culture. Artists and workers were either forced to join the Union of Soviet artists, or otherwise operate illegally. Socialist realism, a form of art appealing to workers and work related themes, was the only form of art produced throughout 1928 to 1945. The Party's control of all creative outlets marginalized all the actual problems of the USSR such as hunger and the low standard of living. Socialist realism appealed to the people to adopt "social motivation" as opposed to self-interest. Art was turned into a tool of propaganda, and this form of universal propaganda and censorship helped turn the USSR into a totalitarian state. The Party believed that if the
Compare and contrast the different ways in which organisations seek to control individual employees - Can an individual ever be fully controlled?
Compare and contrast the different ways in which organisations seek to control individual employees. Can an individual ever be fully controlled? In order to examine such a fundamental topic as the control methods employed by organisations, we must first understand what we mean by control and why it is such an important area of study. According to the Oxford Paperback Dictionary, control is "the power to give orders or to restrain something." Control and power are two topics which are inherently related to one another. It is rare that you find mention of one without the presence of the other. It is impossible to study organisations without at some point encountering theories of power and control. In fact, some protagonists argue that power and control are intrinsically linked to organisational structure and management: Central organisational processes thus involve the control of activities. (Fincham & Rhodes, 1999) However, there is another more basic reason for the study of control and power. This second reason is the nature of organisations and their aims. Every organisation strives to achieve certain specified goals. To do this they employ a workforce to carry out tasks which contribute to the realization of these goals. Without exerting power in the form of control, the workforce may not achieve these goals or even carry out their assigned tasks. This point
US politcal parties
To what extent are there ideological divisions between Democratic and Republican parties? Both the Democratic and Republican party have differences in regards to their ideology on a number of areas, although surprisingly they do share certain aspects within each others spectrums of ideology. But overall over years they have divided further and further apart. It can be argued that both pares have a very similar ideology based on the different labels that exist in each party. Take John Kerry as an example, he was a Democrat but also so himself being close to a Republican. The reason primarily being is that he believes in a variety of principles of a Republican Government. Clearly, this shows that both parties do strike similarities of some sort and not entirely different from their perspectives on key issues. Another cited example of this is the present president of the US. George Bush, who is officially a Republican, is also seen to be a Democrat. Again just as Kerry he believes in the principles of a Democratic Government. This does not mean that both Kerry and Bush are members of each others parties while also being in opposite parties. Rather it demonstrates that to an extent members of the Republican Party can share ideas of the Democrats and vice versa. Aside from this, it is generally argued that the two major parties bear no resemblance of any kind. There are policy
In what ways can the UK be said to be a democracy?
In what ways can the UK be said to be a democracy? There are many countries that claim to be democratic, and the UK is one of them. We elect our government, which it the key feature of a representative democracy, and because of this single reason most people are happy with the definition of Britain as a democracy. However, there are more features that make Britain democratic, and a few that arguably make it less democratic. As well as election of representatives, the features that make a representative democracy democratic are: - democratic institutions and a choice of political parties, civil and political rights, and an open and accountable government. To differing degrees, Britain today has each of these features. We have free and fair elections, not just for the general election, which is usually held every four years. We have by-elections, local elections, mayoral elections for the large cities, and elections to the Welsh and Irish assemblies and the Scottish parliament. The elections are free and fair - it cannot be said that anyone is coerced or forced into voting for any particular party. When we vote, we vote for the person we feel is best able to represent us and our views - this is the most widely accepted element of a democracy, the right to vote for representatives to run the country for us. Another way in which the UK can be said to be democratic is the way
Individualism and liberal theories
Individualism and liberal theories At first glance, the term "liberalism'' and ''individualism" seems to have both a clear denotation and a clear connotation. As a matter of denotation, "individualism" is the belief in the central importance of the human individual and human independence and the importance of individual self-reliance and liberty as opposed to the social group or collective. Individualism also opposes most external interference with an individual's choices - whether by society, the state, or any other group or institution. Individualism is therefore opposed to communal, group, societal, racial, or national goals should take priority over individual goals. Individualism is also opposed to the view that tradition, religion, or any other form of external moral standard should be used to limit an individual's choice of actions. Individualism is also the belief in the supreme importance of the individual which is in form of methodological individualism; this suggests that the individual is central to any political theory or social explanation - all statements about the society should be made in terms of the individuals implies that the society should be constructed so as the benefit to the individual, giving moral priority to the individuals right, needs or interests. However, one of the main elements that Liberalism is made up of is individualism, including
What are the main features of ‘Utilitarianism as an ethical theory? (10)
What are the main features of 'Utilitarianism as an ethical theory? (10) It is important to note that whilst Utilitarianism is an ethical theory, it was also conceived as a political measure. Bentham, for example, thought that he had developed a means by which governments and individuals could work out what the correct course of action was. Utilitarianism is based on the idea of 'utility'. Utility means usefulness. What utilitarians suggest is that everyone should do the most useful thing. However, there seems to be an immediate problem with this idea in that it is not obvious what 'useful' means. The answer to this problem, according to Utilitarians, is that 'useful' means happiness. This is in fact, a development of another ethical theory known as Hedonism. Utilitarians also define good in terms of happiness. Indeed for a Utilitarian the only thing that is good itself is happiness. Another key feature of Utilitarianism is that it attempts to be 'scientific' in that Utilitarians believe that the amount of happiness can be calculated. Bentham believed that it was possible to calculate the amount of happiness in a similar way to the way that calculations are made in science and maths. He called the means for doing this the Felicific Calculus. Bentham believed that it was possible to work out what is right and wrong by following one rule. 'The greatest happiness for
Progress is the aim and also the achievement of Western Modernity. Discuss.
Progress is the aim and also the achievement of Western Modernity. Discuss. When one thinks of the many political, economic and technological advances that have occurred since the 'period of enlightenment', it only seems proper to classify these immense developments as the results of progress. Since the French revolution of 1789 and the emergence of the industrial revolution in Europe, traditional thinking and religious myth began to lose feasibility as scientists and social thinkers paved the way for new ideas and technology. Industrialisation originated in eighteenth century England as a result of the industrial revolution. The changes in the revolution included the invention of new machinery, the harnessing of resources (especially water and steam) and the use of science to improve production methods. With all these advancements considered, western countries are seen to be part of a modern, industrialised world. Modernity is generally held to have come into being with the Renaissance and was defined in relation to Antiquity. According to Featherstone (1991) 'From the point of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century German sociological thinking (from which we derive much of our current sense of the term modernity) is contrasted to the traditional order and implies progressive economic and administrative rationalization which brought processes of the modern
British Democracy - the bestpossible system of government
British Democracy - the best possible system of government It is interesting to note that no matter how hard we try to convince ourselves that our country has the oldest and best democratic system in the world, the facts point to the contrary conclusion. The more one looks at our governmental system and processes, the more one realises that it is an outdated democracy that needs upgrading. Despite our democratic pretences, we are a country that likes the security of our wholly uninspiring system of government and we are loath to change it! This opinion is probably one that you would not agree with, and perhaps this view is extreme. However, it is interesting to look at our modern democratic system and ask questions. The more one looks, the more one sees and the more one doesn't like. Let us begin by looking at the current Labour government, New Labour with all its promises and policies of the manifesto. This was to be a new era of change, of radical reform and dramatic difference. Three years on, one must ask oneself, how much has actually changed? The health service is still riddled with problems almost too profound to solve, the education system, despite labour's new initiative and huge promises of funding amounting to billions of pounds still retains many of the problems that existed under the previous conservative government. Why have some of New Labours key policies
