Discuss the reliability issues of the experimental method
Discuss the reliability issues of the experimental method. An experimental method is where the researcher manipulates an independent variable under controlled conditions in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable. It allows researchers to identify the differences between conditions. There are three main types of experiments these are, a laboratory experiment, a field experiment and a quasi experiment. Each have their own strengths and weaknesses. Experiments are reliable as they use objectivity instead of subjectivity. Objectivity is not being influenced by personal feelings or opinions; only considering facts. This is what makes the experiment reliable. If there is no interpretation of any information gathered then there is no space for mistakes. Unlike observations that use qualitative data, the experimental method only deals with quantitative data. Quantitative data is collected therefore only figures are collected and analysed to give a specific result. Quantitative data is easily repeated therefore making the experiment reliable. The researcher control's the variables in order to get their quantitative data. For example Elizabeth Loftus's independent variable was whether the man in the scene was holding a cheque or a gun. This is how she manipulated the variables and she then got the participants to fill out a 20 multiple question,
Internet Risks and Reliability Issues
(P1) Internet Risks and Reliability Issues (P2) Introduction: This report was produced by undertaking research into several types of business activities on the internet. The report also identifies the risks and reliability issues associated with the type of activity. The report was produced by Haroon Sheikh for the Websters Supermarket. The report was compiled and submitted on 25th FBY 2008. Findings: One of the popular worries about e-commerce is the possible (and probably exaggerated) abuse of credit card numbers. But if you book a holiday over the Internet, shouldn't you also worry about a hacker getting hold of your home address and the dates of your holiday, and connecting it with your recent purchase and insurance of expensive Jewelry. Identity theft is a catch-all term for crimes involving illegal usage of another individual's identity. The most common form of identity theft is credit card fraud (theft and fraud committed using a credit card or any similar payment mechanism as a fraudulent source of funds in a transaction. The purpose may be to obtain goods without paying, or to obtain unauthorized funds from an account) While the term is relatively new, the practice of stealing money or getting other benefits by pretending to be a different person is thousands of years old. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Customers know when this happening because they are warned
Classification and Diagnosis of Depression
Outline the clinical characteristics of depression (5) The clinical characteristics of depression are sad depressed mood, most of the day, nearly every day for two weeks, or loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities. There is also difficulties in sleeping (insomnia); not falling asleep initially; not returning to sleep after awakening in the middle of the night, and early morning awakenings; or, in some patients, a desire to sleep a great deal of the time. A shift in activity level and feeling lethargic or agitated is also a common symptom. Poor appetite and weight loss or increased appetite and weight gain is a physical symptom of depression. You may also experience loss of energy and great fatigue. A negative self concept, self blame and feelings of worthlessness and guilt with further evidence being difficulty in concentrating, such as slowed thinking and indecisiveness. Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide is the main symptom and finally apathy (no interest or pleasure in activities). There are two types of unipolar depression according to the classification systems. The first is major depressive disorder and the other is dysthymic disorder. Patients with MDD require five symptoms, suicidal thoughts. The symptoms are severe but can be short lived. On the other hand DD requires three or more symptoms, including depressed mood but not suicidal thoughts. Patients
The greatest obstacle to solving the Irish question in the years 1874 - 1886 was the issue of land: assess the validity of this view.
"THE GREATEST OBSTACLE TO SOLVING THE IRISH QUESTION IN THE YEARS 1874 - 1886 WAS THE ISSUE OF LAND": ASSESS THE VALIDITY OF THIS VIEW There can be little doubt that question of land, with specific regards to tenant farmers and absentee landlords, was a major obstacle for the British government as they attempted to 'solve the Irish Question'. However, in addition to the fact that there were other issues within Ireland which also formed obstacles to resolution, such as Home Rule, one must also consider the actions of the Disraeli and Gladstone administrations in this period and assess whether they too acted as obstacles to their own attempts to deal with Ireland. The interpretation that the issue of land was the greatest obstacle has much to commend it. Some of the most serious crises in 19th Century Britain had come about as a result of 'knife and fork' issues (including the Chartist movement and the Plug Riots); the disastrous harvests of 1877-79 in Ireland which meant that many famers unable to pay the rent for their land and were subsequently evicted by the landowners resulted in similar 'knife and fork' issues and caused great Irish unrest. This unrest manifested itself in violence, most notably in Connaught and in Phoenix Park in 1882, as the immediate threat to Irish people's wellbeing sparked 'direct action' in such a way that issues such as a religion could. The
Describe what psychologists have learned about environmental disaster and/or technological catastrophe.
Essay on environmental disaster and catastrophe a) Describe what psychologists have learned about environmental disaster and/or technological catastrophe An environmental disaster is a natural disaster that few people will experience in their lifetime. These are relatively infrequent natural events that are the product of natural physical forces governing the earth and atmosphere. A technological catastrophe is a human made disaster, the result of some human error or miscalculation. These events are usually called disasters when there is a substantial degree of destruction and disruption and the events are uncontrollable either because they are natural disasters or because they represent the occasional loss of control over something which humans normally control very well. Psychologists have studied disasters and catastrophes in an attempt to ascertain what characterises a disaster and what the psychological effects of disaster and catastrophe. It has been found that the characteristics of a disaster effect how people react. One important characteristic is the amount of warning available. Fritz & Marks (1954) found that a lack of warning about a disaster can make the consequences worse, however Drabek & Stephenson (1971) found that the effectiveness of repeated warnings of flash floods was undermined by factors such as families being separated at the time of warnings
Psychology Coursework - Conformity
Alistair Frame Psychology Coursework Introduction Background Research Conformity involves the changing of ones attitudes, opinions, or behaviours to match the attitudes, opinions, or behaviours of other people. This pressure to act like other people, sometimes despite our true feelings and desires, is a common everyday occurrence. This is due to implied and spoken rules of the situation. Many factors can affect a person's level of conformity. These include: * Group cohesiveness - The degree to which we are strongly attached to a group and the amount we would be prepared to do to stay within that group. The 'closer' the group the more conformity occurs * Group size - About three or four people will exert pressure to conform. It is aid that a larger group does not necessarily mean more conformity * In experiments researches have discovered that if the participants were allowed to give their answers away from the group then conformity decreased. If people were allowed to give their answers in private then it is said that they will be less likely to be swayed by other people opinions. * Again in experiments researchers like Asch have discovered that if the task is ambiguous or the problem is made harder then conformity levels are likely to increase. Under conditions where the problem is less obvious then people are likely to go with the majority of the group * It is
Consider what psychological research has told us about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
(c) "Eye witness testimony differs from many other aspects of memory in that accuracy is of much greater importance." Consider what psychological research has told us about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. (18 marks) L and P = Loftus and Palmer Pps = Participants EWT = Eyewitness testimony Despite the considerable importance juror's place on EWT, psychological research has shown that EWT tends to be unreliable. This unreliability can be explained in terms of the reconstructive nature of memory (schema theory). Introduced by Bartlett (1932), reconstructive memory refers to the extent to which memory is distorted or otherwise modified (reconstructed) by experience. In practice this means that instead of storing an exact replica of the episode they are witnessing, eyewitnesses may combine the initial stimulus with elements of their existing knowledge and experience (or schema) to form a reconstructed memory resulting in an inaccurate EWT account. Reconstruction is not the only source of distortion in EWT as the language used in leading questions and post-event information may further distort reconstructive memory and so lead to memory blending and confabulation. Research that has provided us with an insight into the effects of language and leading questions on the accuracy of EWT includes that of Loftus and her colleagues. For example, L & P (1974) found that
Outline and evaluate two social psychological explanations for aggression
Outline and evaluate two social psychological explanations for aggression While there are many different approaches in psychology, perhaps the most believable, and ultimately provable approaches to aggression come from the social psychological approach: social learning theory and deindividuation. While the two theories differ in their context, they both assert that the explanations of behaviour, in this case aggression, originate from the situational context emphasising little importance on other factors such as biology, evolution or cognitive processes. The social learning theory (SLT) approach to aggression largely originates from the somewhat infamous work of Bandura. While SLT comes under the large umbrella term of behaviourism, it goes far beyond the simple stimulus response model, explaining in depth more complex and perhaps realistic explanations for behaviour. Aggression is learned either indirectly: through observational learning and only replicated if vicarious reinforcement occurs, or directly. This is where aggressive behaviour is directly reinforced. While both are a form of operant conditioning, the direct approach parallels the ideas much closer. Bandura outlined the following four steps in the modelling process of SLT: Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Attention is increased if the model is more prestigious, attractive or similar. This causes
secondary sources of data
'With the exception of official statistics, most forms of secondary data are too subjective to be useful in sociological research.' Explain and assess this view. [25] Secondary data refers to preexisting data that has been produced by someone other than the sociologist involved in the research. Official statistics include data produced by the government or other agencies e.g. trade unions. Other forms of secondary data include life documents or historical documents such as diaries, letters, and suicide notes etc. They are certain cases when there are no alternatives to secondary data - in the case of 'before' and 'after' studies or studies conducted to analyze trends over a long period of time one cannot go back in time and therefore needs to rely on existing data. Official statistics refers to data collected by the government e.g. statistics relating to unemployment. The fact that statistics are already available to the sociologists means that the sociologist does not have to spend time or money collecting his/her own data. The data allows comparisons to be made, which the researcher would find difficult to collect personally such as in the case of cross cultural studies e.g. comparative study of crime rates in different countries. Positivists favor the use of official statistics, as they are useful for identifying correlations. In Durkheim's study of suicide (1897) he was
Outline and Evaluate 2 Psychological Treatments of OCD
Outline and Evaluate 2 Psychological Treatments of OCD One psychological treatment of OCD is Behavioral Therapy. According to the behavioral explanation of OCD, both obsessions and compulsions have been acquired through conditioning and therefore, in order to recover, patient must unlearn these behaviours. This can happen by Exposure and Response Prevention therapy. ERP therapy aims to provide opportunities for reconditioning and consists of two components. Firstly there is exposure, and in this element, the patient is repeatedly presented with the feared stimulus until anxiety subsides, known as habituation. The exposures move gradually from least to most threatening in manner similar to systematic desensitization. However, If the pace is too slow, patients may lose motivation. The underlying principle of this explanation is that the anxieties persist due to negative reinforcement. ERP aims to break this cycle by forcing the patient to experience the stimulus and learn, through association and relaxation, that it no longer produces anxiety. The second part of the process is Response prevention. The patient is prohibited from engaging in their usual compulsive ritual. This is important in order for the patient to recognize that anxiety can be reduced without the compulsive ritual, this involves the patient being given a list of things that they are not allowed to do. If a
