Discuss evolutionary explanations of human reproductive behaviour
Discuss evolutionary explanations of human reproductive behaviour (25) Sexual selection is a process that favours individuals possessing features that make them attractive to members of the opposite sex or help them compete with members of the same sex for access to mates. Darwin believed that the competition between mates of the same sex affects the evolution of some physical characteristic. Such as, the famous peacocks' tail, which demonstrates that males have a large attractive tail to attract mates of the opposite sex and to stand out from their rivals. This led Buss and Workman and Reader to come up with two kinds of mate selection. One of them, called the Intrasexual which consists of individuals competing with members of their own sex for access to the opposite sex. This creates competition between the males as they fight each other in order to access the female. The second type of mate selection is known as intersexual, this consists of members of one sex attempting to impress members of the other. This is normally based on females, as they need to be impressed before they consent to mating. This mating selection led to Fisher's "runaway process" which consists of an adaptive feature used by females choosing a sexual mate; this may become exaggerated over many generations. Also, the "sexy sons hypothesis" states that females choose a sexual partner for successful and
Outline and Evaluate One Biological and One Psychological Explanation of Schizophrenia
Outline and Evaluate One Biological and One Psychological Explanation of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterised by 'abnormal' thought processes, psychomotor problems, lack of motivation, and disturbance of affect. As a syndrome there are a variety of symptoms that fall under these categories, although they will not all be displayed in one individual. It is thought that it may be incorrect to label schizophrenia as one disorder, as it is believed to in fact be a series of separate disorders that have been placed under this overarching diagnosis. Currently there is no one explanation that can completely explain why the development of schizophrenia happens, however there are many approaches from both biological and psychological areas that attempt to explain the aetiology. One of the biological theories of schizophrenia is the Dopamine Hypothesis. This is a biochemical explanation that suggests the disorder is caused by an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. The main evidence for this has come from studies on both living and post-mortem brains of sufferers from schizophrenia, and also from observations made during drug therapies. This theory acts as one explanation of how the genetic theory may work, in that certain genes that are inherited could cause an increase in dopamine production or receptor density. Originally, studies of the
'Clinical assessment must also take a person's cultural background into account'- to what extent have definitions of abnormality been limited by cultural diversity?
Amy Stuart-Cook 'Clinical assessment must also take a person's cultural background into account'- to what extent have definitions of abnormality been limited by cultural diversity? All ways of defining of abnormality are limited to a certain extent by cultural variations. This makes it difficult for psychologists to be sure that their definition technique would be effective and accurate in diagnosing all cases of abnormality. The main issue for psychologists regarding cultural diversity is that what may be considered normal in one place may be abnormal in another and therefore psychologist must consider this fact before making a diagnosis. Although the deviation from statistical norm and deviation from ideal mental health definitions are affected by cultural differences as I will discuss briefly later, it is the other two definitions which are affected on a larger scale. The deviation from social norms approach to defining abnormality is a relatively basic way in relation to the other definitions however the effects of cultural difference are probably most profound in this approach. This approach defines abnormality by the way people behave in relation to normal practices. Therefore this method assumes that if a person is abnormal they will behave in a way not considered normal by other people in that society. This approach is therefore limited by varying cultures as
Fear is defined as an emotion that is bought on by a threat to an individual's well-being.
Fear Fear is defined as an emotion that is bought on by a threat to an individual's well-being. This is often expressed as anxiety and elicits a reaction in which an individual will choose to 'fight or flight'. A phobia is an intense fear of something specific e.g. an animal or a situation. The reaction towards a phobic stimulus is often irrational and is very often followed by an intense anxiety response. Many psychologists have researched these aspects of human emotions and in this investigation the researcher's aim is to find out how fear correlates to the negative description of an animal. Species may be biologically predisposed to learn new behaviours, especially if the new behaviour is adaptive to the individual. This adaptation idea was proposed by Seligman (1970). This biological predisposition affects an individual's ability to learn certain behaviours. Seligman also stated that behaviours that are not adaptive are harder to learn. These are 'contra-prepared' behaviours, they require a lot of training and are acquired with great difficulty if learned at all. This idea suggests that the reason an individual acquires a phobia or fear is because the object or situation feared poses a threat to that individual. Many psychologists have researched biological explanations of phobic behaviours. Kendler et al (1992) stated that whilst most specific phobias (fear of
Discuss two differences between the medical and psychological models of abnormality.
Discuss two differences between the medical and psychological models of abnormality. By the term "medical model" of abnormality we mean the biological model, what the individual is born with either with reference to their brain or even genetics. The biological explanation would suggest that the individual's mental disorder is a cause of biological malfunctioning. They see that environmental factors are of little importance when taking the biological approach. Reasons for abnormal behaviour could vary from possible genetic predisposition or an imbalance of brain chemistry. The two main treatments suggested by the biological model for abnormal behaviour are drugs and somatic intervention. To delve deeper into the biological model we must look at the human brain and also at genetics. Because the brain controls all aspects of human functioning, it is not difficult to conclude that damage or interruption of normal brain function and activity could lead to observable mental disorders. Genetically, to show a specific condition is inherited, researchers must show that it could not be caused by environmental factors. To provide evidence for abnormal behaviour being inherited through genes, we must look at correlational and twin studies. A "psychological model" of abnormality could be the cognitive model. Cognitive models are based on the assumption that conscious thought mediates
discuss issues relating to the ethics of socially sensitive research
Culture bias occurs when people from one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of people from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practises. Within cultural research, you have two distinctions known as emic and etic. The emic approach studies are from within a particular culture and the etic approach is where a researcher may study behaviour from outside a culture. However, this could result in the imposed etic approach where you impose your own beliefs upon another culture. Walster et al's computer study was an etic approach into interpersonal attraction was carried out in North America and its results found that interpersonal attraction was the single most important factor. This was then generalised to all cultures, however, this research is guilty of Eurocentricm as it has taken results from the Western world and applied it to the rest of the world. This is a danger because those who do not fit into this 'norm' are considered inferior which could lead to issues such as racism. Kohlberg's theory of moral understanding is seen as a universal description of human behaviour. This theory was applied to all cultures and the stages were to fit all cultures around the world. When it was compared to eight different countries, it was found that not all boys aged between 11 and 16 had reached the higher levels, 5 and 6 and they were therefore considered as
Compare 2 models of abnormal behaviour in terms of their views on the causes of abnormal behaviour. Evaluate whether any single model is adequate to explain and treat all instances of abnormality.
'Abnormal behaviour never has a single cause' Compare 2 models of abnormal behaviour in terms of their views on the causes of abnormal behaviour. Evaluate whether any single model is adequate to explain and treat all instances of abnormality. The "Biological" model represents the mainstream views of psychiatry. Its theory is that all mental disorders are genetic. The "Cognitive" model's theory is that mental disorders are a result of disordered thinking. Two different models with very different explanations for the same thing. The "Biological" theory says that mental disorders are like physical disorders. This model is call "Medical" because it suggests that mental illness should be diagnosed in the same way as physical disease is diagnosed. Mental disorders represented as mental illnesses. These illnesses may be caused by one of four possible factors * Genes * Bio-chemical substances * Neuroanatomy * Micro organisms It also says that it can be genetic, passed from parent to child. Cure is only possible by removing by removing the root cause and returning the body to its 'normal' level of functioning. The "Cognitive" model says that the issue is not the problem itself but the way you think about it. Irrational and faulty thinking prevents the individual behaving adaptively. An example of faulty thinking includes maladaptive assumptions about oneself and upsetting
Abnormality - deviating from what is normal.
Psychology: Abnormality Homework a) The meaning of abnormality is 'deviating from what is normal', this sounds simple enough, but what do we classify as being normal. Statistical infrequency is one approach of trying to define normal and abnormality by using static's to identify certain behaviors within a population and does this correctly, but it does not however identify which behaviors within a population need treatment (undesirable). For example trait anxiety, someone with high trait anxiety would be advise to have some sort of treatment, however someone with low trait anxiety is 'hardly clinical abnormality' and could be desirable. So there would be seen to be a glitch in this definition of abnormality, as it does not define how behaviors maybe seen as desirable or undesirable. Furthermore against this definition of abnormality is that the static's only relate to one source of population and does not apply to any other age groups or cultures. b) Two more attempts of defining abnormality are the 'Failure to Function Adequately' theory and also the 'Deviation From Social Norms'. 'Failure to Function Adequately' basically means unable to perform a normal state of every day living, and it is the social groups them selves that contribute to determine what is a normal state of living, and if an individual is unable to function adequately, that would suggest that they
Outline and evaluate the assumptions made by two models of abnormality
Outline and evaluate the assumptions made by two models about the causes of abnormality One model of abnormality is known as the medical or sometimes the biological model. This model assumes that all behaviour is rooted in underlying physiological processes in the body, and therefore that abnormal behaviour is some sort of malfunction in the body, or perhaps due to genetic factors. Following on from this, the model suggests that it is possible to 'cure' abnormality, and it is done so by fixing the malfunction in the body or returning it to normal levels of functioning. This is why it has the medical name - the model assumes abnormality to be a mental illness, in the same way that physical illness is considered a medical problem that can be treated medically. The biological model is widely respected and influential, owing to its heavy scientific basis. The main assumption of the biological model of abnormality is that abnormality is caused by physical factors such as genes, biochemical substances, infection and brain injury (possibly since birth). There is also evidence to suggest that the role of neurotransmitters can affect abnormality, for example serotonin levels have been linked to depression, and dopamine with schizophrenia. What the biological model fails to acknowledge however is precisely why these levels might change. Whilst the cause of physical illness
The Perils of Obedience, By Stanley Milgram
Milgram The Perils of Obedience, By Stanley Milgram Obedience is as basic an element in the structure of social life as one can point to. Some system of authority is a requirement of all communal living, and it is only the person dwelling in isolation who is not forced to respond, with defiance or submission, to the commands of others. For many people, obedience is a deeply ingrained behaviour tendency, indeed a potent impulse overriding training in ethics, sympathy, and moral conduct. The dilemma inherent in submission to authority is ancient, as old as the story of Abraham, and the question of whether one should obey when commands conflict with conscience has been argued by Plato, dramatised in Antigone, and treated to philosophic analysis in almost every historical epoch. Conservative philosophers argue that the very fabric of society is threatened by disobedience, while humanists stress the primacy of the individual conscience. The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the
