The Collapse of Communism in the USSR and Eastern Europe
Analyses of the collapse of communism have followed a dialectical path since the early 1990s, explaining the implosion first as the direct result of US pressure, then as the inevitable fall of a flawed system, and finally, as a combination of the two. This fluctuation has occurred as national archives from both the East and the West have become increasingly accessible, giving historians a more complete picture of trends that may have contributed to the climate within the Eastern bloc at the beginning of the relevant period. Indeed, such documents have been instrumental in dispelling the view that the pivotal events of 1989 had relatively short-term roots. Some analysts have developed reasonable arguments tracing the fall of the Warsaw Pact back only as far as 1985, but for the most part, these are unsatisfying, ignoring critical factors such as the rise of the hawkists in America, and the role of world-wide peace movements. In addition, the release of top secret CIA files has shed interesting light on the under-rated Afghan conflict. These suggest that far from being yet another target for moralistic US containment, Afghanistan was set up by the Americans as an attempt to trap the Soviets in an exhausting Third World contest- to "give them their own Vietnam." This discovery, and others relating to the nuclear arms race, technology, the media, and human rights debates,
To what extent was the advent of the Cold War an outcome of Stalin(TM)s foreign policy from 1939-1949?
Extended Essay To what extent was the advent of the Cold War an outcome of Stalin's foreign policy from 1939-1949? The leading post-revisionist historian John Lewis Gaddis, after examining the Soviet archives that were opened up due to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, has concluded that the Cold War was the product of "authoritarianism in general and Stalin in particular"1. This view was largely supported among the revisionist historians studying the cause of the Cold War, given Stalin's demanding territorial policies in Eastern Europe during WWII and his repressive measures taken to retain the Soviet control in this region after the war regardless of the agreements on the regional nations' freedom reached by the Grand Alliance. However, it is unjustified to state that the advent of the war was caused merely by the Soviet's aggression. Incidents during WWII revealed that Stalin's policies were essentially caused by the West's attempt to crush both Nazism and Communism, even though at the time the Soviet was on the same boat with the Western Allies in fighting against Germany. Furthermore, the legitimacy of the West's interference in Eastern European affair from after WWII to 1949 also needs to be reassessed. The unique nature of the Cold War makes it difficult to determine when the marking point of its advent was. Much as the ideological differences between
George Orwell, one of English literatures most important and famous writers, draws the picture of a dystopia in one of his best known novels 1984. Being considered as a warning against totalitarianism, it is also possible to say that the novel puts fo
Orwell's 1984 George Orwell, one of English literature's most important and famous writers, draws the picture of a dystopia in one of his best known novels 1984. Being considered as a warning against totalitarianism, it is also possible to say that the novel puts forth a road map on how totalitarian regimes work and how certain ideologies are imposed on nations. Creating a world in which the worst possible totalitarian regime is present, Orwell also takes a very close look at the psychological states of people. The writer doesn't only deeply analyze what a totalitarian regime stands for but also introduces the themes of the importance of language, how certain ideologies can be imposed on people and how physical pain can control the human mind. Putting stress on the dreadfulness and the destructive nature of totalitarianism, and also by pointing out that nations can in fact be forced to admire and support such a regime, the writer makes his reader face the cruelest and most realistic aspects of such a horrific repressive regime. Before taking a closer look at the novel, it would be helpful to give background information about the era in which Orwell was influenced to create such a hellish world. 1984 was written in 1949, when Fascism was on the rise, right after the Second World War, when Hitler was defeated and Stalin had performed his cruelest acts. Having worked in
To what extent did the key political ideas directly Influence change and development in Your chosen period of study?
To what extent did the key political ideas directly Influence change and development in Your chosen period of study? Over the past 150 years a number of new political ideas have developed and been accepted as normal practice throughout the majority of European and international society, these come from all sectors on the political spectrum; ranging from extreme left to extreme right. Most of these have been manifested in one way or another since as far back as the middle ages, but it is only in very recent history that they have really ‘stolen the limelight’. These ideas are not only responsible for forming the contemporary societies we live in, but also along the way they have influenced some of the most principal and key events history cares to remember. These political ideas that have developed can be classified into two separate categories. The first category includes liberalism and nationalism, both of which are not confined to one country, these are broad ideals and can be found in many ideologies throughout the world we live in today. The second involves the more radical and extreme ideologies such as Fascism, Communism and Nazism. The main school of thought indicates that the first category contains the base ideals for the second categories more extreme politics. For example Nationalism is widely believed to be the basis for Fascism. History is created
Was the partition of Germany the main cause, or the main consequence of the Cold War?
ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR ESSAY- WEEK ONE Georgina Dore Merton Was the partition of Germany the main cause, or the main consequence of the Cold War? In May 1945, war in Europe ended with the unconditional surrender by the Germans. Europe had been liberated by the efforts of the Allies, chiefly the USA, the USSR, and Britain. However, how the transition from war to peace would develop was unclear as tensions between the allies were already evident. Ultimately the transition that occurred was one of war to Cold War, the consequences of this transition being a bipolar world. However, whether the division of Germany is a cause or a consequence of this procedure, remains elusive and provokes debate amongst International Relations specialists. To determine where the division of Germany fits into the debate concerning the Origins of the Cold War, it is necessary to determine where the issue of Germany itself fits into the history of the origins of the Cold War, was division inevitable or was it a cause of the tensions that were evident on a larger scale. At a system level the events of World War II had fundamentally altered the Balance of Power. The Versailles system had collapsed, France was prostrate, Britain's victory had bankrupted her and Germany was divided into four zones, its impotence threatening chaos. A power vacuum had been created at the centre of Europe as a result
The Great Terror in Leningrad: a Quantitative Analysis.
The Great Terror in Leningrad: a Quantitative Analysis. THIS ARTICLE PRESENTS some preliminary empirical findings about the impact of the great terror in Leningrad (city and oblast'). The sheer scale of the purges makes a quantitative analysis of their impact viable, even within a very limited time span and within a defined geographical region. Leningrad itself offers an interesting case study because of its unique position as the Soviet Union's 'second city' (and former capital). It was an important political and administrative area, located on the borders of the Soviet empire. Its industrial base was relatively advanced, and the local economy had strategic importance for national defence and international trade. The city was surrounded by extensive agricultural regions, which were home to a varied population. The aim here is to offer an insight into the social composition of the victims of the terror, as well as the waves of arrests, trials and executions. As such, rather than attempting to determine who was responsible for instigating and perpetuating the Great Terror, or examining the impact of mass repression on Soviet society as a whole in the second half of the 1930s, this article addresses such historiographical questions as the scope and scale of mass repression and identifies those who were the victims of the purges. [1] The purges: historiographical debates
The NaziState, Economy and Society.
Fascism - Semester 1: Lecture 7. Student Notes. The Nazi State, Economy and Society. When Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30th January 1933, as head of a coalition government, Franz von Papen, the aristocratic Conservative ex-Chancellor and member of the Catholic Centre Party, boasted that: 'In two months we will have pushed Herr Hitler into a corner so hard that he'll be squeaking.' In fact, armed with the resources of the state - its police, army, press, radio and propaganda machine - two months was all Hitler needed to achieve the end of Germany's old political class. Within 24 hours of Hitler's appointment new Reichstag elections were called. Prior to this big business had held back in supporting the Nazis with money, now at a meeting with Hitler on 20th February 1933, 20 leading industrialists and bankers promised the Nazis 3 million Reichmarks for their campaign. A campaign followed in which the Nazi's finally revealed their true colours of violence and terror tactics. 69 people died in the five week campaign. Goring enrolled an extra 50,000 Nazi supporters as 'police' in Prussia. The Nazi election propaganda blamed all the violence on 'the terrorist activities of the Communists'. Hitler issued an Appeal to the German People on 31st January 1933 which was long on rhetoric and short on details. Basically it was a call to restore Germany's power and
China After World War II
China After World War II Civil war is raging in China. Across the plains of Manchuria troops of Chiang Kai-shek's central government are battling for supremacy against the military forces of the Chinese Stalinists. With the generous aid of American imperialism, Chiang Kai-shek succeeded, in May, in capturing the strategic town of Szepingkai. Next, the Stalinists were ousted from Changchun, the Manchurian capital. The fall of Kirin followed. At this writing (early June) Chiang's forces are being deployed for an assault on Harbin, the last important Manchurian urban center in Stalinist hands. All these cities had been invested by the Stalinists when they swept into Manchuria from North China in the wake of withdrawing Soviet troops. Chiang's easy victories over the Stalinists are testimony to the military superiority of his forces, thanks largely to the supply of modern weapons and munitions furnished by the American imperialists, who, moreover, placed ships and transport planes at Chiang's disposal for the deployment of his troops to Manchuria. The weapons of the Chinese Stalinists, although augmented by arms seized from surrendering Japanese troops, are no match for the war equipment at Chiang's disposal. This disparity of weapons compels the Stalinists to withdraw from the cities to the wide open spaces, to avoid head-on battles, and in general to adhere to the methods and
“Victims or Perpetrators?” - An analysis of the role of women in Nazi Germany
Extended Essay in History "Victims or Perpetrators?" - An analysis of the role of women in Nazi Germany Bita Pourmotamed 3848 words Candidate code: MAY 2002 - 0511 038 Abstract The main focus of this essay lies on the much-debated role of women as either "victims" or "perpetrators" in Nazi Germany between the years of 1933 to 1939. During the time Adolf Hitler and the NSDAP (National Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei) ruled the country, the Nazi party started and continued to consistently emphasize the primacy of motherhood and marriage for a woman, but also altered the role of females according to the needs of the party and the German state. To be able to reach a final assumption to the research question, this essay firstly examines the situation of women in the Nazi state by primarily establishing an idea about their circumstances before Hitler's seizure of power in January 1933 and then continues with a brief description of the Nazi attitude towards the female population of Germany. This essay later proceeds to depicting the roles of women as mothers and views and as an important source of labour. Then by analysing the differences between male and female education and the Nazi organizations of women, the main body of the essay is completed with a historical debate. The conclusion reached in this essay is that due to the fact that the majority of the German
Soviet State
The Soviet State under Stalin Stalin's Role in the Soviet State The crisis of modernisation: from indirect to direct mobilisation * The emergence of the Stalinist machine opened up new approaches to the underlying problem of backwardness. By the late 1920s a very different situation made available to the government a third strategy - to tackle the peasantry head on and take what was necessary by force as it had during the period of War Communism. The precondition of this was the strengthened ruling group and a powerful and ruthless leadership. * Strategies of direct mobilisation appeared once more on the Party's agenda, with Stalin as their main sponsor. * By 1929 the Stalinist machine provided the spine of such as system. And the emergence of Stalin as undisputed leader gave the system a unity and decisiveness it lacked during the power struggle. Meanwhile the other organs of the coercive machinery were the army and police which had a decade of relative stability to grow their traditions. * As leader of such a group, Stalin was in a position to pursue the twin goals of industrial growth and military power more ruthlessly than any other Russian ruler. During the 1930s he showed that he possessed both the will and ability to do so. Introduction of Collectivisation and Industrialisation (Five Year Plans) A Social Revolution * In 1929 the Soviet Government launched a
