The arguments for and against developing a “genetic fingerprint” profile for all members of society
AS Module 4 Essay - The arguments for and against developing a "genetic fingerprint" profile for all members of society. Genetic fingerprinting is a rapidly developing technique involving the cutting of DNA and using it to distinguish between individuals of the same species. This is useful because every individual produces a unique genetic fingerprint as we all have different DNA sequences. Several steps are undertaken in order to prepare a genetic fingerprint. The non-coding DNA provides the basis of a genetic fingerprint (Potter, 2001). Firstly, a DNA sample is taken from, for example; the blood, a hair root or a mouth swab. If there is not enough DNA in the sample, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be done to produce more. This is where the enzyme, DNA polymerase is used to amplify a piece of DNA by in vitro enymatic replication (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction, 02/03/2008). The next step would be to cut the DNA into pieces, and this is done by using the restriction endonuclease enzyme. The enzyme makes two incisions, one through each of the sugar-phosphate backbones (i.e., each strand) of the double helix without damaging the nitrogenous bases (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction_endonuclease, 02/03/2008). Now the DNA sections can be separated by the process of electrophoresis, which is a technique, used in the laboratories that result in
How Zoo's Avoid Inbreeding in a Limited Captive Population
HOW CAN A ZOO WITH A LIMITED CAPTIVE POPULATION AVOID INBREEDING? * Contents. * Introduction. * Implications of Inbreeding in Limited Captive Population. * Solutions on Avoiding Inbreeding. * Ethical Issues How can Zoos with limited Captive Population Avoid Inbreeding Introduction; Animal Inbreeding was a problem in the early 1900's. London Zoo was one of the first and largest zoo's open in the world, Zoo keepers and scientists were ignorant and animals were kept in iron cages and confined spaces. They were not aware of the problem that inbreeding caused to captive populations. By the 1990's studies in plants and animals indicated that 'inbreeding depression' and many other effects were taking place naturally and in captivity. One solution to this was made in 1988 European zoos formed European Community Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA), the countries involved were to keep detailed reports on animals which would be shared with other Zoos to keep breeding in the best possible interest of the animals. Implications of Inbreeding with limited Captive Population; Inbreeding is the term used when breeding within the family, close and distant in plants and animals, however, there are consequences of inbreeding, and bares illness and health problems within a population if continued over generations. Over generations more frequently recessive and deleterious traits can
An investigation into the effect of different sugars on respiration in yeast.
An investigation into the effect of different sugars on respiration in yeast. I am going to carry out an experiment, measuring the effect of different sugars on the respiration in yeast. In order to make a justified prediction I have researched different aspects of scientific knowledge, including respiration, yeast, sugar structure, enzymes and the collision theory. Glycolysis http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301notes1.htm Glycolysis is the splitting of a monosaccharide into two molecules of pyruvate. It takes part in the cytoplasm of a cell. Glycolysis begins with a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, and ends with two molecules of pyruvate, each with three carbon atoms. For the first steps of glycolysis, energy from ATP is needed. However, energy is released in later steps to generate ATP. For every molecule of glucose, a net gain of two molecules of ATP is produced. The first stage of glycolysis is called phosphorylation, and results in hexose bisphosphate. This is shown in green on the above diagram. Hexose bisphosphate then breaks down into two molecules of triose phosphate. Hydrogen is removed from the triose phosphate and transferred to NAD to produce reduced NAD. These hydrogen's can then be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. The end products of glycolysis are pyruvates, which still contains a lot of chemical potential energy. There are two
Determining the Water Potential of Sweet Potato Tissue
Determining the Water Potential of Sweet Potato Tissue Introduction The aim of this experiment is to determine the water potential of sweet potato tissue using osmosis. This can be achieved by placing the samples inside different molarities of sucrose solution and work out the percentage change in mass and then with the aid of a conversion graph convert molarity to water potential (kPa), without the weight of the sweet potatoes being a factor. Background Knowledge In mature plant cells, the fluid filled vacuole occupies most of the cell volume therefore in order to determine the water potential of the sample I would need to work out the water potential of this fluid inside the cell. Substances can pass in and out of cells by four different processes: * Diffusion * Osmosis * Active transport * Endocytosis & exocytosis All these processes involve substances passing through the cell membrane of the cell. In this investigation, I only need to consider osmosis. OSMOSIS is the movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane. This is a colligative property i.e. dependent on the concentration of particles in a solution. The water molecules involved always move down a ? gradient. It happens because of the natural kinetic energy possessed by the particles, which makes them move
Cellular Structure and Function
Cellular Structure and Function Introduction Cells are organised together into functioning groups called tissues. These groups of cells organise together to perform a specialised task. There are four basic types of tissues found in the human body; these are epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous. The following text aims to explain the structure and function of these tissues as well as ovum and sperm cells. Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissues, as with all different types of tissue, can be found all over the body, they generally line the inside or outside of a body cavity. The cells are anchored down by basement membranes and form in different shapes such a flat, cuboidal, and columnar. The below text details several different types of epithelium cells that can be located around the body. . Stratified Squamous Epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium cells are present in areas of the body that are very moist and subject to abrasion, such as the mouth, esophagus and vagina. The cells are packed densely together and are very flat and irregular in shape. The tissue functions to provide a barrier to entry to inside the body and protects underlying tissues from friction and drying. Figure A. above shows a drawing of the epithelia from an overhead point of view, in shape they are very similar to that of a fried egg. Figure B. shows the cells from a side-on point of
Cellular organelles Structure and Function
Eukaryotic Cellular Organelles: Structure and Function Introduction Cells take many different forms in living organism’s but there are a certain common features in which eukaryotic cells share. Individual cells consist of minute membrane bound vesicles found in the cytoplasm called organelles. These organelles play a crucial role in undertaking the processes that go in inside the cell in order for it to function. The following text aims to explain the structure and function of the major organelles. Nucleus The nucleus is commonly referred to as the control centre or brain of the cell; it directs instructions to other organelle to carry out specific tasks and contains the genetic material of the cell. The long strands of DNA found in the nucleus combine with proteins to form chromatin; the chromatin is then used to create chromosomes. A: Chromatin B: Nuclear Pores C: Nuclear Envelope D: Nucleolus E: Chromosomes Above: A Nucleus. The Nucleus is enclosed entirely by an inner and outer nuclear membrane which protects the fragile DNA and genetic material within. Throughout the surface of the nucleus the two membranes fuse together to create pores that allow the exit of RNA, and the entrance of nucleotides for DNA replication. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of folded tubules and vesicles found on the outside of the nucleus. Part of
Diabetes. What are the effective ways of treating Diabetes mellitus?
What are the effective ways of treating Diabetes mellitus? Problem identification and description Diabetes mellitus has become one of the most life threatening health issues in the UK. This widely spread disease has reached every corner of our society in a very short period. One in 10 of the population in the UK suffers from the disease. Only in about 14 years, the number of people who has the condition has increased from 1.4 million to 2.4 million. Furthermore "by 2025 it is estimated that over four million people will have diabetes." (Diabetes UK , 2010)1. According to BBC News, 20092 "rates of obesity and diabetes will continue to rise unless we do something urgently." Diabetes mellitus is a serious disease that affects the entire human body. "Diabetes is the fifth most common cause of death in the world." (Roglic G, Unwin N, Bennett PH et al, 2005)3. According to Borland, 20114 "Junk food is causing rising numbers of children to develop type 2 diabetes, a disease once seen only in adults." Other factors that is responsible for the sharp increase in the last few years is that the rapid increase in the rate of the obesity especially amongst young teenagers, as obesity is one of the major risk factor that leads to non-insulin dependent Diabetes mellitus. According to British Heart Foundation, seven out of 10 adults in the UK do not take enough regular exercise, which
Beetroot contains red pigments called betalains, located within the cell vacuole. Normally the pigments can't pass through membranes but they leak out when the beetroot is cooked.
Why Does The Colour Leak Out Of Cooked Beetroot? If you read a recipe for cooked beetroot it will usually recommend that you don't remove the outer skin of the beetroot and don't cut off al the stalk and root if you want to avoid getting lots of red dye in the cooking water. Beetroot contains red pigments called betalains, located within the cell vacuole. Normally the pigments can't pass through membranes but they leak out when the beetroot is cooked. Aim - The aim of this practical is to use beetroot to examine the effect of the temperature on cell membranes and relate the effects observed to membrane structure. To function correctly a cell needs to be able to control transport across the partially permeable cell membrane. Theory - To understand how the red pigment leaks out of the beetroot it is essential that we understand the molecular Structure of a plasma membrane. A membrane is a phospholipid bilayer. This means that it has two layers of molecules called phospholipids. Each of these phospholipid molecules has two parts: • A 'head' that will mix with water but not with fat (i.e. it is hydrophilic) • Two 'tails' that will mix with fat but not with water (i.e. they are hydrophobic). In the phospholipid bilayer, the hydrophilic heads are always on the outside of the membrane. The hydrophobic tails are always on the inside of the membrane. Alone, this
How can we control the infection rates of MRSA in hospitals? issue report
How can we control the infection rates of MRSA in hospitals? So what is MRSA? It stands for Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; it is a bacterium which has become resistant to antibiotics, it is also known as multidrug resistant. Staphylococcus aureus is a common bacterium found in certain areas like skin and nose but is usually harmless at these sites. Although can result in infections causing pimples or conjunctivitis in the eye. More serious problems include pneumonia and heart disease. It is usually described as a 'superbug' [1] because the species includes strains of variable virulence-the ability to spread, colonise a host and cause disease. An outbreak of infection occurs when a bacterium, fungus or virus is transmitted to susceptible hosts and causes disease. Outbreaks can be a small scale like family members or even pandemic. These bacteria carry genes encoding penicillinase, an enzyme that breaks down penicillin and prevents it from killing the S. aureus bacteria. They can do this because they have the ability to modify their DNA by mutation or by acquisition of DNA from other bacteria. The ways to prevent the infection spreading usually involve good hygiene, [2] anyone going into a hospital is advised to take sensible precautions. These usually involve cleaning your hands very often; even if you are
DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURAL COMPARTMENTATION OF MAMMALIAN CELLS AND THE DIFFERING FUNCTIONS OF THESE COMPARTMENTS
DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURAL COMPARTMENTATION OF MAMMALIAN CELLS AND THE DIFFERING FUNCTIONS OF THESE COMPARTMENTS Mammalian cells are eukaryotic and therefore have organelles that are common to all eukaryotic cells. Each of these organelles has a basic function to carry out in the cell. The nucleus, usually the largest organelle in animal cells, is separated from the cytoplasm in the cell by two nuclear membranes comprised of phospholipid bilayers and many different proteins. The inner membrane is the one which defines the nucleus' shape. At certain points around the nuclear membranes, the two membranes join to form nuclear pores, which are important for the movement of material in and out of the nucleus that could otherwise not pass through the phospholipid bilayer around the structure. Examples of these include lengths of tRNA or mRNA which are too large to pass through the membrane but are necessary for functions elsewhere in the cell. The nucleus has many important functions in the cell, the most important being the storage of DNA which codes for all the proteins made by the cell. The way in which this is stored differs depending on whether the cell is a growing cell or a 'resting' cell, i.e. one in which minimal synthesis of DNA and RNA takes place. The heterochromatin- a threadlike mass of DNA and associated proteins found when a cell is not reproducing- breaks down
