Distinguish among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, presentation punishment, and removal punishment
Distinguish among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, presentation punishment, and removal punishment. Give a concrete example of each. Whenever a particular stimulus is presented after a behavior, and the behavior increases as a result, positive reinforcement has occurred. This is the case whether or not the presented stimulus is one that others would agree is pleasant and desirable. For instance, some students will make a response to get a teacher's praise, but others (like James in our case study) may behave to get themselves a scolding. Most students will work for As, but a few may actually prefer Cs or even Fs. Depending on the individual, any one of these stimuli-the praise, the scolding, the A, or the F-may be a positive reinforcer. Take, for example, concrete reinforcers. A concrete reinforcer is an actual object-something that can be touched. Snacks, stickers, and toys are all examples of concrete reinforcers. Such reinforcers are especially likely to be effective with young children. In contrast, negative reinforcement brings about the increase of a behavior through the removal of a stimulus (typically an unpleasant one). The word negative here is not a value judgment; it simply refers to the act of taking away a stimulus. When people make a response to get rid of something, they are being negatively reinforced. Take, for example, the case
Realist approaches are unlike any other approach. They don't concentrate on the causes or crime and why people commit crime, instead they emphasise solving crime, which requires practical solutions
Realist approaches are unlike any other approach. They don't concentrate on the causes or crime and why people commit crime, instead they emphasise solving crime, which requires practical solutions. They argue that other theories have made no contributions in trying to solve crime. They criticize other approaches for, sympathising and romanticising with the criminal, ignoring the victims of crime and the damage they suffer and failing to produce practical solutions to crime. However, there are two approaches to realism. New right realism and new left realism. These two approaches are from very different roots. Right realists believe that people make rational choices to commit crime. They suggest that people will choose to commit crime when the opportunity or situation is there and the benefits of the crime outweigh the costs. In support of these views is James Q Wilson, 'In thinking about crime' (1975). Wilson provides the practical solutions to these concerns by suggesting that harsher sentences and more police are the answer to crime. Therefore if punishments were greater and there was a greater chance of getting caught then less people would commit crime. However, controversially Wilson believes that such an approach can have only a limited impact. In reality, the chances of getting caught for a particular crime are small. If offenders believe that they are not going to
This essay will evaluate the claim that deviant behavior is the result of dysfunctional socialization and will be looking at views from Albert K. Cohen, Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, and Emile Durkheim.
Evaluate the claim that deviant behavior is the result of dysfunctional socialization. This essay will evaluate the claim that deviant behavior is the result of dysfunctional socialization and will be looking at views from Albert K. Cohen, Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E. Ohlin, and Emile Durkheim. Cohen agrees with the statement that the dysfunctional socialization causes deviant behavior. Cohen argues that lower-working-class boys hold the success goals of the mainstream culture, but, due largely to educational failure and the dead-end jobs that result from they have little opportunity to attain those goals. Stuck at the bottom of the stratification system, with avenues to success blocked, many lower-working-class boys suffer from status frustration. They replace success goals with an alternative set of norms and values in terms of which they can achieve success and gain prestige. The result is a delinquent subculture. The delinquent subculture takes its norm from the larger culture but turns them upside down. A high value is placed on activities such as stealing, vandalism and truancy. Therefore, we can say that because there is unequal access of opportunity, there is greater pressure on certain groups within the social structure to deviate. However, Cohen's views cannot be totally accepted as Steven Box believed Cohen's theory was only plausible for a small minority of
The chivalry thesis claims that women will be treated more leniently for committing certain crimes, generally shoplifting is often associated more with females than males, but the statistics suggest that males commit many more acts of theft than women, an
Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the value of 'chivalry thesis 'in understanding differences in crime. gfg Pollak (1950) was of the opinion that police and magistrates tended to be more 'chivalrous' and 'lenient' towards female offenders, resulting in sentence disparities, and as a result, criminal statistics underestimate the amount of female offending. (Item A). Pollak (1961) argued that men - namely in this case police officers, magistrates and judges, are socialised to be protective towards women and thus are less likely to chare or prosecute them, and are also treated more leniently in court. Pollak goes further to argue that women are accustomed to deceiving men, for example in faking orgasms during sex, or lying in a relationship to gain material wealth. This skill in deceit mean that their crimes, such as poisoning and infanticide, are less easily uncovered (item A) leading to women being underrepresented in criminal statistics. The chivalry thesis claims that women will be treated more leniently for committing certain crimes, generally shoplifting is often associated more with females than males, but the statistics suggest that males commit many more acts of theft than women, and this may be because females are let off with a warning rather than a conviction. This could be because the statistics of crime are so male dominated, a police officer may
Sociological explanations for patterns of female crime
In this essay, I am going to address the sociological explanations for patterns of female crime. Crime has a negative impact in society. It refers to those activities that break the law of the land and are subject to official punishment. This essay will state why female crime is dramatically increasing throughout society. Additionally, whilst women commit less than men, they commit all types of offences. The explanations will be stated in this essay suggesting why and how they commit criminality. Female involvement in criminal activity is not restricted to a few areas. While females do not tend to commit crimes of violence (violence by females tends to occur within the family, mainly as a final response to male violence), they are involved in a wide cross-section of crime. Therefore, while, in theory, women have similar opportunities as men to commit crime these may be limited by other factors. Most theories that explain crime, implicitly accept that males are more likely than female to commit crime. However, the number of female offenders has risen faster than the number of male offenders since 1958. According to the social trends 2004. Marsh ("Sociology In Focus: Crime", 1986) concluded that in terms of the ratio of conviction between females and males, where women have similar opportunities for criminal behaviour in relation to males, their respective patterns of crimes
Law and order in London in the late 19th Century
Describe Law and Order in London in the late nineteenth century. There were many things involved in law and order in London, however a key element was the rising levels of crime in the east end, which caused the creation of policing. There were many reasons that there was a high level of crime in the east end, but most of it is due to the poor living conditions they were forced to live in. In the 19th Century the east end was mostly associated with poverty and horrible living conditions. Many places such as Shore ditch, White chapel and Hackney were known as "Slum Areas". Slums are areas where there are many over populated houses where people are forced to live in horrible living conditions. The houses were swarming with disease; this led to crime because many poor people wanted anything they could get. There was a huge amount of unemployment in the east end, some of this because of immigrants, so there were many poor people without jobs, living in terrible living conditions wanting money, this caused a huge increase in crime. In the east end there was a large amount of crime, 75% of recorded crime was petty theft and only 10% was violent; murder was extremely rare. People were led to believe that murder was very common, by cheap newspapers called " penny dreadfuls", the public read these over exaggerated articles and believe that everyone was at risk. Pickpockets were very
To what extent is Robert Merton's theory of 'anomie' helpful in understanding crime in contemporary society?
To what extent is Robert Merton's theory of 'anomie' helpful in understanding crime in contemporary society? It is rightfully argued that crime, whether or not in a contemporary society, is an extremely complex and multi-faceted Phenomena that has puzzled academics for many years. Theories that aim to rationalise the causes of crime and understand the origin of criminal behaviour are often criticised for being too biased or deterministic in their research studies. Many have been of great influence and seen to explain (to an extent) the cause of crime but none has fully decoded the mystery of why people commit crime. Merton's anomie theory aimed at explaining deviance from a sociological perspective as opposed to previous academic theories on crime and criminals. The first well known study of crime and criminals is that of one who is often referred to as the 'father of criminology', Cesar Lombroso. Lombroso's argument was based around the Darwinian theory of human evolution and his theory argued that criminals were a throw back to an earlier period of human progression. In other words, they were less evolved humans, with visible physical features such as large ears and big lips. His theory suggested that criminals were born and not made therefore, where genetically prone to criminality. Merton's argument was to the contrary. Rather than observing
This essay sets out to identify and analyse the argument that prison sentences are not as effective as CSO, especially for young offenders. Moreover, this argument will be base on analysis and evaluation of views of different authorities
"Prison sentences are not as effective as Community Services Orders especially for young offenders." This essay sets out to identify and analyse the argument that prison sentences are not as effective as CSO, especially for young offenders. Moreover, this argument will be base on analysis and evaluation of views of different authorities, the statistics they present, the advantages and disadvantages. In addition, a comparison will follow based on those views and the facts they present. The debate over whether prison sentences are not as effective as community services orders for young offenders has attracted considerable controversy recently, because this issue tends to ignite passions and drive people into opposing camps. On the one hand, we have those who believe that government should rethink who they should lock up (Dobson) because English and Welsh prisons are overcrowded due to higher number of ex-prisoners re-offending.1 On the other hand, we have those who believe that the best remedy for offenders is prison (Lord Wolf),2 as well as those who think that prison is a good therapeutic way for prisoners, as long as there is good flexibility in the rules and prisoners are provided with the right help while in prison (Weale).3 It is in the interest of any reasonable government to seek for the best solution to reduce crimes. However, is it really necessary to lock young
'Feminist theorising and research on crime within the family has transformed fundamentally criminological understanding of the problem of crime' Discuss.
Seminar Leader: Keith Hayward Natalie Norwood 'Feminist theorising and research on crime within the family has transformed fundamentally criminological understanding of the problem of crime' Discuss. The Sage Dictionary of Criminology1 defines family Crime as a "generic term which draws attention to the extent and range of violence and abuse in 'private' domestic life". Family crime or domestic violence has been a hidden crime for many decades. The woman's movement in the 1970's broke the silence on issues which related to the victimisation of women in the private sphere. These issues included childhood abuse, incest, rape and domestic violence. Since that movement, women's experiences began to be discussed and noted. Feminist criminology started to become a noticeable part of criminology around the early 90's. Criminologists with the feminist perspective aim to increase female visibility within criminological knowledge. As well as this, they aim to understand crime as a male dominated activity produced not only as a result of sex differences but also as a product of gender differences. They question whether sex/gender have a place in crime, justice and criminological and justice theories. Feminist criminology is made up of many different theories; there is no one feminist criminology and it is believed by many that the term "feminist criminology" should be
Critically assess the contribution of labelling theory to an understanding of crime and deviance
Critically assess the contribution of labelling theory to an understanding of crime and deviance Labelling theory is one theory suggested by sociologists as the explanation for crime and deviance. However, several different theories were in existence before the labelling theory came about. First of all there were the biological theories; these stated that the cause of a person acting in a deviant manner was due to a physiological characteristic or quality which they possessed. For example having a mesomorphic body type or having XYY chromosomes were believed to be causes of someone becoming a criminal. Biological theories however are widely criticised as they do not take into account several patterns in the distribution within society of crime and deviance, which statistics show are apparent. For example there is an obvious pattern between social status and criminal convictions; there are many more convictions in the working class communities. However, physiological characteristics are randomly distributed meaning that as many upper class individuals should commit crimes as the lower classes, the biological theories give no explanation to why this is the case. Another point for criticism is the difference in amount of convictions of the old and young, when in reality there are far more younger people commit crimes. If it was a biological factor causing someone to commit
