Discuss alternative models of memory
Discuss alternative models of memory The multi-store model of memory (MSM) was proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968); it is based on the principle that there are separate stores for memory: sensory, short term and long term. However other approaches and models have been developed with research evidence that contradicts the MSM and provides us with insight as to how our memory works. The working memory model (WMM) was developed by Baddely and Hitch (1974). The model refers to the part of memory that you use when working on a complex task that requires you to store information as you go along. The main difference to the MSM is that its ideas formulate from the short term memory (STM) having more than one store therefore avoiding the MSM's criticism of being reductionist. The model suggests two separate stores for visual and auditory processes. Evidence for this was found by participants doing two tasks that are both visual at once - their performance was poorer than doing them separately. However when a visual and auditory task was carried out performance was much stronger suggesting there are two separate stores for visual and auditory. The first part to the WMM is the central executive which is described as the part which directs attention to tasks and allocates specific systems to particular tasks. For example if an auditory task is being carried out it directs the use
MBA Essays: Carreer Goal and Accomplishments
Essays ) What are your career goals? How will an MBA help you achieve these goals? Why are you applying to Columbia Business School? My Career Goal My plans for the next ten years are to establish and manage a public relations and advertising company. I want to especially concentrate on sports marketing and entertainment management. Korea has rapidly grown in the past few decades in the manufacturing industry, but is still in its infancy in fields of services. I decided to start a communications company because I saw great potential and a large niche market in the sports and entertainment industry. But before challenging this field, I made thorough plans which includes a degree from a business school specializing in this field. I had made plans to start a PR & AD company in my freshman year of college. I had concentrated on mass communications classes in college as my minor, then had worked in the intelligence field for three years in the army, and I have spent the last three years in public relations at Daewoo. My job scope includes media relations, event coordinating, sponsorships, and corporate advertising. Although I still have much to learn, I think my studies in college, and my experience in the Army and Daewoo has enabled me to understand on a large scale what public relations and advertisement is. My brother who has a master's degree in advertisement
evaluate badley's model of memory
The human memory is a complex cognitive system, which has been much researched in recent times. In general terms, memory can be viewed in various guises, either as a mental structure which functions to retrieve information about images, conversations, events, ideas etc. at a time when the original stimulus is no-longer present or as a storage system which hold this information so that it may later be retrieved. More simply put, memory is the information processing capacity that allows for information to be encoded, retained and retrieved. Human memory, it has been found, is not a single discrete function, but rather consists of a chain of complex associated processes, each serving specific purposes with its own characteristics. The first model, to systematically put these processes together was the modal (or multi-store) model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). In describing the basic architecture of the memory, they initially introduced two different systems, named after their capacity; Short Term Memory and Long Term Memory. Soon after a third memory store was added, Sensory Memory. The names of the systems imply their functions. Sensory memory is associated with the auditory and visual senses. We are constantly bombarded by information from the environment, but so the cognitive systems are not overloaded, only a small amount of information is attended to through
The Multistore model of memory
THE MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN - 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed this theory to explain the memory processes. They began by distinguishing three separate unitary stores: * STM - * LTM - * SENSORY STORE - this is information collected by our senses (ears, eyes, nose, mouth etc). The information remains only for a brief period by the sensory registers. Nonetheless, the capacity of the sensory store is very large and the method of encoding depends on the sensory store used, for example is it was the eyes, it would be visual codes. The SS is constantly receiving information but the majority is not paid attention to so stays only for a brief period. Info that is paid attention to then enters the STM. Information in the STM is in a fragile state - it decays quickly if not rehearsed or is displaced by incoming information (which is due to the fact STM has a limited capacity, 4 chunks). So, it has to be rehearsed In order to be transferred into the LTM, the individual has to undergo maintenance rehearsal. Initial rehearsal, maintains the information into the STM but if it is done enough, it enters the LTM. A & S proposed a direct relationship between the amount of rehearsal in the STM and the strength of the LTM - the more something is rehearsed, the better it will be remembered. EVIDENCE . Sperling - research has been undertaken to prove the
Essays on Political Theory: Marx and Rousseau.
Essays on Political Theory: Marx and Rousseau In their analyses of social and political relations, Marx and Rousseau both come to the conclusion that the "phoniness," not the affluence, of the upper classes is the source of social and political disparities and what necessitates change and/or revolution, yet they disagree on the specifics of the new system to be implemented. While Marx may view history as dependent upon the material relationships of classes, which would be an argument for affluence being the major cause of a revolutionary class, it is the domination over material production that characterizes the ruling class which provides them with their phoniness: "Conceptive ideologists" of the upper class make "perfecting the illusion of this class about itself the main source of livelihood," while the more "active members" of the upper class will accept such views without much thought (814). So perhaps simply having material superiority is not itself the great social injustice, but in all but the rarest of circumstances, material and intellectual corruption results, in which the ruling class desperately seeks ways to expand its power and hold over the other classes. Both Rousseau and Marx conclude an "alienation" of society, yet they disagree on what people are alienated from. Rousseau believes that in a political society we become increasingly alienated from our
Recall in Memory Using Mnemonics
Psychology A2 Coursework Recall in Memory Using Mnemonics Introduction Mnemonics are aids to a person in remembering data. This was proven in Bower (1973)'s experiment in which two different groups of students were given five lists of twenty words. Of these participants, those who used mnemonics remembered 72% of the items while the non-mnemonic group only averaged 28% recall. This however, was not the first research into memory. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables to test recall and tested himself many times. He found that memory declines quickly at the outset but then levels off soon after. This experiment has been duplicated many times with the same results. Ebbinghaus' recall method was relearning; although there are others such as serial recall, free recall, paired associates and recognition tasks. Memory processing can be split into three procedures: registration, encoding and storage - followed by retrieval. Encoding is how the information is changed into a storable form to be kept in memory. Storage is the actual keeping and retaining of the information in memory. Retrieval is how the information is taken from storage and brought to light (i.e. remembering). Forgetting may also occur at any of these stages causing the person to be unable to recall the information stored. However, not all information encoded is actually stored and not all stored information can be
The working memory model
Strengths The working memory model is high in face validity, this means that the model seems plausible. In this case, it seems plausible because it fits with everyday experience of manipulating information when solving problems, with short term memory as a dynamic process rather than a static store. For example, Baddeley (1997) suggests that mentally counting the number of windows in your house (or flat) demonstrates the operations of working memory. Normally a person will imagine each room in turn, forming a mental image of each window (Visuospatial sketchpad), they will count using the phonological loop to rehearse the numbers and this will all be coordinated by the Central Executive. Another advantage of the Working Memory model is that verbal rehearsal is not necessary for all types of information - just verbal strings - this fits better with our everyday experience. For example, we do not have to rehearse everything that happens to us because events are processed by the episodic buffer. Empirical Evidence Baddeley (1975) found that participants' memory span for visually presented one-syllable words was greater than for polysyllabic words (words with more than one syllable). This suggests that the articulatory loop is only able to hold limited number of syllable chunks. However, later studies showed that memory span for words like "Cricket" and "Bishop" was greater
Experiment Testing Iconic Memory
Experiment Testing Iconic Memory Introduction There are 3 types of memory; iconic, echoic and semantic. I am going to do an experiment on iconic memory. This is the visual sensory store. This type of memory has attracted most research. 1960 brought an experiment by Sperling. He conducted a series of experiments where he showed participants 3 rows of 4 letters for 50 milliseconds. He found that people could recall about 4 or 5 letters from the table but his participants reported the feeling that they had seen more than 4 or 5 letters but could not recall them. I can relate this to my experiment as Sperling used iconics as the base of his experiment as will I. I will use pictures and words instead of letters. It is important to recognise that a normally functioning memory system must be able to register information, storing information over time and retrieving information when required. Philosophers have been interested in memory for over 2000 years. It is in the last 50 years that psychologists have studied the topic. The topic is called "cognitive psychology". It is the research field which focuses on the mental processes humans use to gain, store, retrieve and use their knowledge. Aside of iconics, echoic and semantics there are 3 basic types of memory: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. I will be testing short term iconic memory. Short term
Describe and evaluate models of memory.
Claire Harvey DISCRIBE AND EVALUATE MODELS OF MEMORY What is memory? Memory is involved in all aspects of our lives, is it a cognitive thinking process or a way of retaining information or is it a number of connected stores or even actual information retained. According to Reber (1985), it is possibly all of theses. Memory has not been defined as a single process or fact and several theories exist about its nature, character and structure. We have vast amounts of information stored in our memory systems which we are able to access quickly and effortlessly, this implies that knowledge stored must be highly organised to allow us to retrieve the appropriate information for a given situation. This organising will be determined by the way that information is encoded into memory. The way the knowledge is organised will determine the type of process required to access that information in the future. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1969) suggested that memory comprised of three separate stores. The sensory memory store, the short-term memory and the long term-memory each store has a specific and relatively inflexible function. This was called the multi-store model. There are two main memory stores short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM),they are studies in terms of there ability to encode, which means make sense of information, also by there capacity, how much information is
Forgetting in Short-Term Memory
Forgetting in Short-Term Memory Decay in STM Trace decay theory in STM relates to theories of Duration in STM. The theory suggests STM can only hold information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed Brown & Peterson (1959). After this time the information Decays (fades away). Waugh & Norman (1965) used the Serial Probe Technique to test the theory. Participants were given a series of numbers to learn. They were then given one of the numbers and asked which number followed it. The numbers were presented at different speeds therefore the faster the numbers presented the better the recall if Trace Decay theory is correct as the more likely the information is to remain in the STM. The results did not support the theory. This research employed the laboratory experiment and its validity can therefore be questioned. Displacement in STM The idea of displacement in STM causing forgetting relates to the Capacity of STM as proposed by Miller (1956). It simply suggests that if the capacity of STM is limited to 7 plus or minus 2 items or chunks of information then STM is full then some of that information must be kicked out or displaced in order for new information to enter. Retrieval Failure in LTM This theory suggests that all information received is stored in LTM but that some information is difficult or impossible to access. This idea is characterised by
