What is meant by the phrase 'The normative content of modernity'? Is it a valid notion?
UNIVERSITY OF EAST LONDON DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY THE SOCIOLOGY OF IDENTITY AND DIFFERENCE: SO323 UNIT LEADER: BOB CANNON ESSAY QUESTION: WHAT IS MEANT BY THE PHRASE 'THE NORMATIVE CONTENT OF MODERNITY'? IS IT A VALID NOTION? The Western definition of modernity as inspired by certain Judeo-Christian realities has prompted questions whether or not modernity is a Western project and this has in turn lead to intense debate about the moral character of the project and also raised questions whether its normative content may have been different if it had not taken place in Europe. This essay will first describe the project of modernity highlighting its main themes and how it is claimed to have replaced the 'dark ages' of traditional, feudal society with a new social order. Using the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers such as Kant and Rousseau, the essay will elaborate on how these themes helped invent the modern Western notions of human rights and individual equality and put them on a secular and universal, as opposed to religious sectarian basis. As the essay explores the nature, limits, and validity of modernity as a western project, it will then focus on the ideas and arguments put across by Habermas and Foucault because they are representative of the modernist and postmodernist arguments in the current debate about the normative content of modernity, a
The Japanese samurai warrior
Synopsis The Tokugawa rule significantly changed the concept and build of the Japanese samurai warrior due to multiple factors, the most significant being the introduction of an era of peace. Homosexuality among samurai was also accentuated during this period; the book of short stories titled Comrades Loves of the Samurai highlights this fact and emphasizes the lack of masculinity through feminine physical and emotional descriptions. Whereas Hagakure sets out an array of quotations relating to the proper yet strict conduct of a samurai. Under one of the most famous and peaceful reigns in Japanese history, the Tokugawa period (1600-1868), the definition of the ideal samurai man, his constructs of masculinity and his unwritten code of conduct, 'Bushido' ('the way of the warrior') was altered. Though samurai were present from the 12th century onwards, it was only the lack of warfare during the Tokugawa rule that encouraged and supported their study in literature. With the help of the Zen religion strengthening their mindset, samurai led an extremely disciplined life, as illustrated in Hagakure, a book of philosophical quotations pertaining to the proper behavior and thinking of samurai. Pride, honor and loyalty were the main concepts in a warrior's life, when one of these were incomplete, it could bring about hara-kiri (or seppuku), a suicide exclusively known to the
Zen the True Vehicle for Social Change.
Joseph R Knupp Zen Buddhism 2/17/01 Professor Olson Pledge: Zen the True Vehicle for Social Change In his time Ikkyu was viewed by the monastic community and lay people as a crazy amoral monk. His drinking binges and cavorting with women were looked down upon. People saw him as a man devoted to the world. The truth of Ikkyu was his deep devotion to the salvation of others. He rejected the closed stifling monastic community. Instead he embraced life and guided the "evil" people toward enlightenment. Ikkyu was the salvation of medieval Zen. Hakuin also aided in the rejuvenation of medieval Zen. He introduced the great doubt. This approach to enlightenment was useful for the masses. It helped make Zen possible for the lay people, not just the privileged Zen acolytes. While Ikkyu must have acted in an ethical manner due to his enlightened state he would appear to be ethical to all if he adhered to the code of monastic life. Ikkyu's methodology and Hakuin's Great Doubt provided the tools for Zen to become a vessel for social change. An enlightened being actions are inherently ethical, because enlightenment carries within it the supreme knowledge of good and evil and the ability to do only good. According to Ives "actions springing from satori are inherently good and hence if the person has been designated as a roshi on the basis of an acknowledged satori -
The Philosophy of Zen and Shin Buddhism
The Philosophy of Zen and Shin Buddhism Alec Griswold 2/15/04 Prof. Brackett Through the study of Pure Land and Zen Buddhism in Japan one discovers that Buddhism has transformed into more of a philosophy than a religion. Although the particular sect in Pure Land Buddhism called Shin Buddhism still includes religious worship it has been simplified to aid those on the path to enlightenment. Furthermore, Shin Buddhism can help one answer their most important philosophical questions like, Who am I? Why do I suffer so? Where am I going? What is my purpose? What does it mean to be a human being? What happens after death? Shin Buddhism is a way of life and a philosophical path, which offers a liberal, voluntary, peaceful and deeply mystical spirituality. Zen Buddhism provides a path in which one can discover the true nature of themselves. This form of Buddhism encompasses many philosophical elements that are used to direct one on their path to enlightenment. Furthermore Zen is not a religion in the sense that it is popularly understood; for Zen has no God to worship, no ceremonial rites to observe, and no future abode to which the dead are destined. In essence Zen is free from all these dogmatic and religious impediments. Whatever teachings there are in Zen, they come out of one's own mind. Fundamentally we teach ourselves and Zen merely points the way. Zen Buddhism is
Comparison between Christianity and Buddhism
UNIVERSITY OF NEW ENGLAND A Comparison between Christianity and Buddhism RELS181: Assignment 3 Words: 2200 Religion has always played a fundamental role in human society. Throughout the course of history, religion has been a part of human experience. It binds a nation, community or group of individuals together. Through the past some controversies regarding religion and cultural communication among people have emerged. These nowadays results in religious conflicts that show the detrimental influences of cultural globalisation. It is generally acknowledged that Buddhism and Christianity are ancient and world religions; however, whether the belief in Buddhism is credible or not, has sparked spirited debate. Some Christians believe the Buddha is a "shadow", and he is not to be believed. However, there are some similarities in terms of histories, main figures, and beliefs between Buddhism and Christianity and in order to solve sources of conflict, the Buddhists and the Christians should understand the parallels between both religions and respect each other's beliefs. All religions have in one form or another a leader, an organisation that claims to have the monopoly of the truth, but on the other hand, there are always those who do not believe in those truths and "it is these people who become seekers, who form and join new religious movements." (Nelson, 1987:116)
Reality, Morality, and the Afterlife: A Comparison of Christian and Bhuddist Thought
David Thatcher (# 4095075) Vernon Martin RELS201 23 May 2010 Reality, Morality, and the Afterlife: A Comparison of Christian and Buddhist Thought Do we go to heaven or hell after death, or do we come back as another human being or even an animal? Such a question reminds us of one of the major differences between Christianity and Buddhism-the concept of the afterlife. Another major difference lies in the origin of these two religions. Buddhism developed from the teachings of one Siddhartha Gautama in the sixth century BCE, while Christianity came from a man named Jesus in Roman Palestine who claimed to be God (Toropov and Buckles 200, 71). This paper will explore how the Buddhist and Christian concepts of reality affect their view of the present world and the afterlife, resulting in different approaches to truth and morality. The Christian Concept of Reality The Christian concept of true reality is rooted in divine revelation. In John 17:17, Christ speaking to God the Father says, "Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth" (The Harper Collins Study Bible). Christ further promised to send a Holy Spirit to guide them into truth: "When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth; for he will not speak on his own, but will speak whatever he hears, and he will declare to you the things that are to come" (The Harper Collins Study Bible, John 16.13).
What were the main characteristics of the Enlightenment?
Date 24.11.2000 Course title: Sociology Surname: Manesi Forename: Sofia Course code: SO 300 Essay No1 Essay title: What were the main characteristics of the Enlightenment? This essay is going to discuss the main characteristics of the most important event that took place during the 18th century, Enlightenment (1715 - 1799). However, before my analysis of its main characteristics begins, it would be helpful making a small review of how things were in society before the start of this movement. Until the 18th century, just before the Enlightenment era started, people's knowledge was really limited. The only information they had about world nature and society, human creation and about people's place, duties and destiny in the world, was from what the Christian Church was popularising through the Bible and many other religious scripts. The Bible and the several religious scripts were transmitted in religious institutes, colleges, schools, and churches. Obviously, the Christendom in combination to the monarchs was the ruler of the epoch. People strictly leant on tradition, and had total faith in religion. The clergy had managed to make them believe that there was no way of improvement and that they should blindly trust the Church. Consequently, commonalty could not understand
Assess the significance of the role that the Enlightenment attributed to God
Assess the significance of the role that the Enlightenment attributed to God Assessing the role of God in Enlightenment thought is not an easy task, the main reason being that the majority of the great Enlightenment thinkers did not actually address (or attack: the two verbs at this time being synonymous) the issue of God specifically (the notable exceptions being the atheists d'Holbach and Jacques-André Naigeon). What the philosophes did address and attack was organized religion, usually Catholicism (although Christianity as a whole was fiercely criticized). In order therefore, to discover their perception of God, it will be necessary to examine their arguments concerning religion. However, even this is not as simple as it appears. The Enlightenment was a very broad movement which included thinkers of differing beliefs and ideas and therefore, there was no uniform consensus on the subject - some (such as d'Holbach) were atheist, others deeply religious (notably Rousseau), whilst the majority were deists of one kind or another (deism was a movement that ran parallel to the Enlightenment although it had originated prior to it). Clearly though, the majority of the philosophes were religious, which is significant - the Enlightenment did not attack God nor did it attack religion (as Nicolson puts it, "it was not faith that they attacked, but superstition: not religion but
What roles did ideas associated with either Newton or Locke play in the Movement? Illustrate by reference to the work of a particular philosopher.
What roles did ideas associated with either Newton or Locke play in the Movement? Illustrate by reference to the work of a particular philosopher. The 'Enlightenment' is the term commonly used to refer the changes in intellectual attitudes and means of thinking that occurred in the period circa the eighteenth century. Enlightenment as a phenomenon itself has been described by Kant as "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage" and he elaborates that "tutelage is man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another. Self-incurred is this tutelage when its cause lies not in lack of reason but in a lack of resolution and courage to use it without direction from another" (Kant, 1785). Kant is in effect describing enlightenment as enabling ways of thinking to break from the traditional ideas of the past and provide a new, rational form of thought, and he sums this up with the motto "Have courage to use your own reason!" (Kant, 1785). This essay will in part attempt to examine to what extent the work of Newton fulfils Kant's concept of enlightenment. The 'Age of Enlightenment' therefore can be thought of as a period when new concepts of enlightened thought were initiated. It is not an event, in that it cannot be pinpointed to an exact timescale, and "only existed to the extent that it appears meaningful to isolate certain beliefs and ways of thinking
Buddhisms: Yogas
Sunrita Sen Honors 118 Professor Timothy Knepper 03/10/2009 Explicate the four paths to release and union (yogas) contained in the Bhagavad-Gita. Are any of these paths alone sufficient? Are any of these paths intrinsically preferable? Is this Gita internally consistent on this matter? If so, how? If not, why? One of the points that the Gita is well known for is its suggestion of four ways or paths to release and union (yoga) with Krishna who is also referred to as the Lord. The four paths Krishna suggests to Arjun through various conversations, in the course of the Gita, are Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Raja Yoga (Dhyana Yoga) and Bhakti Yoga. According to Krishna, these are the four separate paths to achieving release and union but in the course of my paper I will try to prove that none of these paths, by themselves, can help an individual attain that goal. However, certain paths seem to be intrinsically more preferable than others. The Gita is very specific about the precedence of Bhakti Yoga over and above all the others. It also places Raja (Dhyana) Yoga as second best to Bhakti and Karma and Jnana Yoga on a more or less even plane after Raja. I will try to show through examples, how this is elaborated on within the Gita itself. I will also try to show, however, that a blending of these paths can make the goal of union far more achievable and