Memory research
Much of the traditional laboratory research on memory conducted in the past century has followed Ebbinghaus (1895) in using tightly controlled experiments that facilitate the quantification of memory (see Baddeley, 1990; Schacter, 1989). This tradition has been strongly criticized in the past two decades, however, most notably by Neisser (1978), who provocatively dismissed the laboratory research of the past 100 years as largely worthless for answering "the important questions about memory," and called for a shift to the "realistic" study of memory. Since Neisser's call, there has been a growing number of studies on such varied topics as autobiographical memory, eyewitness testimony, prospective memory, "flashbulb" memory, memory for action, memory for faces, memory for places, etc. (see, e.g., Cohen, 1989; This new wave of everyday memory research has resulted in a proliferation of research methods that are quite removed from those traditionally employed in the laboratory. The rift between proponents of naturalistic and laboratory memory research, as well as efforts at reconciliation, may be seen in the lively debate) sparked by Banaji and Crowder's (1989) paper. It is apparent from the commentaries that "everyday memory" is an ill-defined category (Klatzky, 1991), and that the dimensions of the controversy are not simple to specify. In general, the battles appear to be
'To what extent does psychological research support Atkinson and Shiffrin's model of memory?'
'Rehearsal is the key to understanding human memory.' 'To what extent does psychological research support Atkinson and Shiffrin's model of memory?' 'Learning is the acquisition of knowledge and memory is the storage of an internal representation of that knowledge.' Blackemore (1988) The multi-store model consists of three main stores - the sensory memory store, the short-term memory (STM) store and the long-term memory (LTM). The sensory memory transfers information to STM. It is made up of five stores, one for each sense. The model sees STM as a crucial part of the memory system as without it information cannot get into or out of the LTM. Information can only be stored into LTM by passing through STM and can only be retrieved from LTM by entering STM. Rehearsal is the repetition of information in order to retain it in the STM. The multi-store model states that the longer information is in the STM and the more it is rehearsed, the more likely it is to be transferred to LTM. There is some evidence to support this view. In one particular experiment, participants were asked to rehearse a list of items out loud. In general, the more frequently an item was rehearsed the more likely it was to be recalled from LTM (Rundus, 1971). However, evidence from everyday situations implies that rehearsal is a lot less important than the multi-store model suggests. Eysenck & Keane (1995)
Multi-store model and working memory model
Multi-store Model and the Working Memory Model Models of Memory The Multi-store Model of Memory The multi-store model (MSM) was designed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). It says that there is actually more than one kind of memory. Multi-store model has three parts: sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Sensory Memory is the type of memory that receives and stores information about the world from our senses. Information lasts just as long enough for it to be transferred to STM (1-3 seconds). The visual system possesses iconic memory for visual stimuli such as shape, size, colour and location (but not meaning), whereas the hearing system has echoic memory for auditory part of sensory memory. Short-term Memory is the type of memory where information is selected by attention from sensory memory, may pass into short term memory (STM). This allows us to retain information (acoustically) long enough to use it, e.g. looking up a telephone number and remembering it long enough to dial it. Peterson and Peterson (1959) have demonstrated that STM last approximately between 15 and 30 seconds, unless people rehearse the material, while Miller (1956) has found that STM has a limited capacity of around 7+/-2 'chunks' of information. STM also appears to mostly encode memory acoustically (in terms of sound) as Conrad (1964) has demonstrated, but can also
Memory Managment Operating Systems
Ricki Lambert Operating systems Assignment 2 Memory Management Introduction Memory management is a control of the operating system. Memory management is the most vital part of keeping computers resources in order. Without this kind of management the computer would experience severe problems when multiple threads are to be run, and when processes are completed and memory is to be regained. The management system is therefore capable of allocating and de-allocating memory when needed by the system. When a system has too little memory it will become unstable and therefore almost unusable. The memory managing sector of the operating system will also allocate an orderly fashion for the executable files to be dealt with, this then allows for the memory management system to determine what is in the memory for optimum performance and C.P.U utilization. It must be constantly active searching through its system and deciding what parts are being used by whom and what threads and applications need to be moved in and out of the system. When the memory becomes to full there must be an application or process to free some of it. A list can be seen below of the main purposes of the memory management sector. . Relocation of memory 2. Allocation of memory 3. Protection of memory 4. Sharing of memory 5. Logical organisation of memory 6. Physical organisation of memory Address
Outline and Evaluate the Multi Store Model of Memory.
Outline and Evaluate the Multi Store Model of Memory. The multi store model of memory was first introduced by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) It is a structural model that suggests that memory consists of 3 different stores of memory. Firstly Sensory memory. This lasts for a fraction of a second and we use it to focus on specific stimuli, such as focusing on a specific person's voice in a loud environment. It has 3 main parts, the iconic (visual), echoic (sound) and haptic (feeling/touch). This information moves to your short term memory. The short term memory has little capacity (7 plus or minus 2 items) and a short duration, so if information is not rehearsed, it can be forgotten. The STM is encoded mainly acoustically (sound). When information from the STM is rehearsed it is moved to the Long Term Memory. This had an unlimited capacity and its duration is up to a lifetime. The LTM is semantically encoded (meaning). Interference may occur for words similar in meaning, and sound or spelling, for example for 2 brothers named Jack and Joe others may get the names mixed up because they have similar meaning and both begin with J and so are stored similarly in the LTM. Research evidence for the existence of sensory memory can be found in the studies of psycholigists Baddeley and Sperling. Baddely (1968) investigated the iconic store. He had the hypothesis that the iconic store is
The Memory Process. This paper will describe a memory test using numbers, letters, and words and analyze results of the test, as well as explain the concepts of working memory, short term memory, and long term memory.
The Memory Process Encoding data into the mind is the general process of memory. In other words, memory is the capability to program, accumulate and remember things. The three central methods of memory are to encode, store, and recall. Three kinds of encoding are used to process information for storage. The first is to hear the information, which is called acoustic. The second is imagery or what is seen and the third is information that is meaningful known as semantic. Memory is ultimately held in storage until such time the information is needed and then it is recalled. This paper will describe a memory test using numbers, letters, and words and analyze results of the test, as well as explain the concepts of working memory, short term memory, and long term memory. It will also offer an explanation of encoding and retrieval in the memory process and how they relate to this memory test and the results. Lastly, this paper will evaluate variables connected to encoding information and ease of retrieval as they relate to this test and the results. Concepts of Working Memory The concept of working memory was developed as a progression and expansion of the former theory of short-term memory. In particular, the working-memory model suggests four elements. The short-term storage of data happens in the visuospatial or the phonological memory, both a storage barrier in a diverse
Describe and Evaluate 2 Models Of Memory
Describe and Evaluate 2 Models Of Memory In this essay 2 models of memory will be described and compared. They are the Atkinson and Sniffrin model of memory, the Multistore model, and Crain and Lockhart model, the Levels of Processing Model. Models of memory are primitive diagrams of human memory to help understand the flow of information and how it is stored. In order to evaluate those 2 models appropriately it is important to understand how old they are. The Multistore Model of Memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin is a very primitive model although it does try to explain how the memory works quite well. It recognises 3 memory stores - the Sensory Memory Store, the short-term memory store and the long-term memory store. The environment makes available a variety of sources of information. The information comes in through the sensory system - through one of the five human senses. For a brief time it gets stored in the sensory memory store; 2 seconds for auditory and 0.5 second for visual information. It is an exact copy of the stimulus, although it lasts for a very short time. The experiment done by Sperling in 1960, where he showed a quick image to the participants and asked them to write the answers down, supports the theory of existence of the Sensory memory store, as participants could only remember 36% of the image on average. According to the model, if attention is paid to
Memory Consolidation and REM Sleep.
Memory Consolidation and REM Sleep Aldous Huxley's Brave New World considers the possibility of humans learning simply by listening to recorded messages played during their sleep. Can learning really be this simple? What is the role of sleep in learning and memory? It is known that sleep exists in two phases, REM and Non REM sleep. It is speculated that Non REM sleep is the time that the body and brain use to rebuild themselves after a long period of wakefulness (1). REM sleep, however cannot be easily explained. Scientists have speculated that REM sleep performs many functions among them development of the brain, synthesis of neuro-proteins, and coordination of eye movements (1). This paper will explore one specific function of REM sleep: the role in memory consolidation. There are many theories floating around the internet, but no common truths about the mechanisms of how the brain serves to remember events of the day during REM sleep. REM sleep is a period late in the sleep cycle in which the brain and body become active, increasing heart rate and blood pressure. The eyes shudder quickly back and forth, giving this stage the name Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. Electroencephalograph patterns for REM sleep are much like those during wakefulness, and include many fast beta-rhythms (2). It may even be that the brain works harder during REM sleep than when awake (3). REM
Outline the multi-store model of memory and consider its strengths and limitations
Outline the multi-store model of memory and consider its strengths and limitations (18marks) The multi store model of memory is an explanation of the flow of information through a series of stages. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) believed that memory involved three different stores. These being sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. They believed that to transfer information into the short-term memory it needs to be attended to (attention is focused on the information in sensory memory) and to transfer information from short-term memory into long-term memory the information needs to be rehearsed. Atkinson and Shiffrin found that when information passes through these stores it can be lost by forgetting. Their findings were that in sensory memory information is lost through decay, in short-term memory information is lost through displacement and in long-term memory information is lost as an affect of interference. Atkinson and Shiffrin also believed that rehearsal is needed for information to be transferred to long-term memory and how well it is rehearsed will determine how effective recall is. There are many strengths to consider in terms of the multi store model of memory. Previous studies such as Milner (1966 study of HM) and Baddeley (1997 Clive Wearing) support the theory that long-term memory and short-term memory are very different and separate systems.
Describe and evaluate one alternative to the multistore model of memory
Describe and evaluate one alternative to the multistore model of memory The working memory model was proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) as a way to represent short-term memory in terms of further subdivisions. It suggests that working memory consists of three components. These are the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The central executive is the component of working memory which is modality free (i.e. not visual or auditory). It is the most important component in the model and is responsible for monitoring and coordinating the operation of the slave systems. It is flexible, in that it can process information from any modality and also has some storage capacity, although this is very limited. It seems to play a major role in attention, planning and in synthesising information, not only from the slave systems but also from LTM. The phonological loop stores a limited number of sounds for brief periods and can be thought of as an inner ear. It is now thought to be made up of two components (Gathercole and Baddeley 1993). One component is the phonological store, which allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief period. The other component is the articulatory control system, which allows subvocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store. The visuo-spatial scratch pad stores visual and spatial information and
